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Class __£i_^/yi:^ 
Book - t3 O 

Copyright W^ .. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 




LOUIS W. HILL 

PRESIDENT GREAT NORTHERN RAILROAD SYSTEMS 



Dry Land Farming 



By 

Thomas Shaw 

M 

Late Professor of Animal Husbandry at the 
University of Minnesota 



Author of 

The Study of Breeds, Animal Breeding, Feeding Farm Animals, 

The Management and Feeding of Cattle, Grasses and 

How to Grow Them, Glovers and How to 

Grow Them, Etc. 



ST. PAUL, MINN. 

The Pioneer Company 

1911 






Copyright, 1909, by 
THE AUTHOR 

All Rights Reserved 



f CI.A320834 

/ 



tTO 

LOUIS W. HILL 

PRESIDENT GREAT NORTHERN RAILROAD SYSTEMS 

THIS BOOK 

IS RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED 

IN RECOGNITION OF THE GREAT WORK HE IS DOING FOR THE 

DEVELOPMENT OF THE AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES 

OF THE AMERICAN NORTHWEST 



ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The author desires to acknowledge his indebted- 
ness to the respective authors of the excellent books, 
''Arid Agriculture" and ''Dry Farming," which were 
freely consulted in its preparation, also to the respective 
authors of various bulletins issued by Agricultural Ex- 
periment Stations located in the dry land area, and by 
the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 



THE AUTHOR'S PREFACE 

What may be termed the dry land area of the 
United States and Canada embraces approximately not 
fewer than five hundred million acres, all of which may 
be tilled, and nearly all of which is unusually rich in 
the elements of production. Because of the limited 
amount of rain that falls, this immense area can never 
be tilled successfully by the methods of farming ordi- 
narily practised in humid areas. Within a comparatively 
recent period, however, it has been ascertained that 
nearly all of this area may be made to produce good 
crops, and with reasonable certainty, by what are known 
as dry land methods of tillage. 

The existence of this immense agricultural domain, 
as yet largely unoccupied, is now being widely pro- 
claimed. Settjers are rushing into it, the greater por- 
tion of whom have previously lived in humid or sub- 
humid climates. They are much prone to begin the till- 
age of the land by methods that are adapted to humid 
conditions. It is a foregone conclusion that such meth- 
ods will fail. Dry land farming can only succeed through 
methods that are adapted to dry land conditions. 

This book has been written in the hope that it 
will furnish information that may be safely followed by 
the dry land farmer in the prosecution of his work. 
When writing it, special consideration was given to the 
crops that may be successfully grown in the various 
sections of the dry land area, and to the best methods 
of growing them. That the dry land farmer may find 
the book helpful to him in the prosecution of his work 
is the earnest desire of the author. 

THOMAS SHAW. 

St. Anthony Park, Minnesota, 1911. 



DRY LAND FARMING 



CHAPTER I . 1 

What Is Meant by Dry Land Farming. 

CHAPTER II 24 

The Origin and History of Dry Farming. 

CHAPTER III 43 

The Domain for Dry Farming. 

Chapter IV 61 

Soils in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER V 79 

Soil Moisture and Dry Farming. 

CHAPTER VI 103 

Plant Growth in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER VII 121 

Plowing in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER VIII 143 

Cultivation in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER IX 173 

Sowing and Planting in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER X. 191 

Crops* That May Be Grown in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER XI 214 

Growing Grain Crops in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER XII 2 

Growing Cultivated Crops in Dry Are.vs. 

CHAPTER XIII -i 

Growing Legumes in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER XIV 340 

Growing Hay and Pasture Crops in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER XV 3G4 

Growing Trees and Fruits in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER XVI 383 

Rotation in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER XVII 404 

Maintaining Fertility and Humus in Dry Areas. 

CHAPTER XVIII 424 

Live Stock on Dry Farms. 

CHAPTER XIX 442 

The Water Supply in Dry Areas. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 
WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 

Page 

1. What Dry Farming Does Not Mean 1 

(a) Growing crops without moisture. 

(b) Growing crops in all areas where precipitation 
falls. 

(c) Growing crops every year on the vSame land. 

(d) Growing crops to the exclusion of live stock. 

(e) Growing all crops proper to the latitude. 

2. What Dry Farming Does Mean 3 

(a) Growing crops under semi-arid conditions. 

(b) Growing crops where moisture is normally defi- 
cient. 

(c) Growing crops where moisture is temporarily 
deficient. 

(d) Growing special crops by special methods. 

3. Growing Special Crops 5 

(a) Special with reference to class and variety. 

(b) Special with reference to drought resistance. 

(c) Special with reference to ability to gather food. 

(d) Special with reference to early inaturity. 

(e) Special with reference to methods of cultivation. 

4. Growing Crops by Special Methods 8 

(a) Special methods of soil preparation. 

(b) Special methods of planting. 

(c) Special methods of cultivating. 

(d) Special order in succession in the crops. 

5. How Climates May Be Classified 10 

(a) Climates that are arid. 

(b) Climates that are semi-arid. 

(c) Climates that are sub-humid. 

(d) Climates that are humid. 

6. The Influences That Affect Aridity . 14 

(a) The amount of the precipitation. 

(b) The character of the precipitation. 

(c) The season of the precipitation. 

(d) The influences that affect moisture evaporation. 

(e) The influences that affect filtration and leaching. 

7. The Dominant Ideas in Dry Farming 17 

(a) The conservation and accumulation of moisture. 

(b) Deep plowing and subsoiHng. 

(c) Compressing and stirring the soil. 

(d) Increasing the organic matter in the soil. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xi 



Pag 
Contrasted With'^Farming in'Humid~Areas 19 

(a) It is confessedly more difficult .- 

(b) It calls for more exact work. 

(c) It maintains more of cleanliness in the crops. 

(d) It is in a sense high-class farming. 



CHAPTER II 
THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 

1. The Antiquity of Dry Farming 24 

(a) Where the great world powers originated. 

(b) But little is known of the early methods. 

(c) What was done in some of the early centuries. 

(d) Where dry farming has long been practised. 

2. Mistaken Views as to Its History 26 

(a) With reference to the time when first practised. 

(b) AVith reference to the place where it began. 

(c) With reference to the area where practised. 

(d) With reference to its early promoters. 

3. Dry Farming in the United States * . 28 

(a) In the state of Utah. 

(b) In the state of California. 

(c) In the Great Basin country. 

(d) In the Great Plains area. 

(e) In the Mountain states. 

(f) In the Columbia river basin. 

(g) In the Colorado and Rio Grande basins. 

4. Dry Farming in Europe 31 

(a) In eastern Europe. 

(b) In central Europe. 

(c) In southern Europe. 

5. Dry Farming in Asia 32 

(a) North of the Himalayas. 

(b) In India and China. 

(c) In southwestern Asia. 

6. Dry Farming in Africa 32 

(a) In the Mediterrane^m states. 

(b) In South Africa. 

(c) In other parts of Africa. 

7. Dry Farming in Other Places 33 

(a) In Canada, Mexico, and the^ Central American 
states. 

(b) In various comitries in South America. 

(c) In the Island Continent of Australia. 

8. The Promoters of Dry Farming 35 

(a) What brought it into prominence. 

(b) Aid from other sources. 

(c) No one man can claim to be its originator. 



Xll 



TABLE OF CONTENTS 



9. The Future of Dry Farming 

(a) The outstanding material interest. 

(b) The crude methods of practise must vanish. 

(c) The evokition will come increasingly. 



Page 
40 



CHAPTER III 
THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 

1. The Influences That Bear Upon Dry Farming. 

(a) The amount of the precipitation. 

(b) The time at which it falls. 

(c) The character of the evaporation. 

(d) The temperature normally present. 

(e) The characteristics of the soil. 

2. Arid and Semi-Arid America 

(a) Why these areas are not easily defined. 

(b) The dry area included by states. 

(c) The tillable land within the dry area. 

3. Divisions of the Arid and Semi-Arid Country-.. 

(a) The Great Plains area. 

(b) The Inter-mountain region. 

(c) The Columbia river basin. 

(d) The Great Inland basin. 

(e) The Colorado and Rio Grande river basins. 

4. Annual Precipitation in the Various States. 



43 



47 



49 



(a) Precip)itation 


in 


North Dakota. 




(b) Precipitation 


in 


South Dakota. 




(c) Precipitation 


in 


Nebraska. 




(d) Precipitation 


in 


Kansas. 




(e) Precipitation 


in 


Oklahoma. 




(f) Precipitation 


in 


Texas. 




(g) Precipitation 


in 


New Mexico. 




(h) Precipitation 


m 


Colorado. 




(i) Precipitation 


m 


Wyoming. 




(j) Precipitation 


n 


Montana. 




(k) Precipitation 


m 


Idaho. 




(1) Precipitation 


m 


Utah. 




(m) Precipitation 


n 


Nevada. 




(n) Precipitation 


m 


Arizona. 




(o) Precipitation 


n 


California. 




(p) Precipitation 


n 


Oregon. 




(q) Precipitation 


n 


AVashington. 




(r) Precipitation 


n 


Alberta and Saskatchew 


an. 


Seasons of the 


Precipitation 





b:i 



57 



(a) Where it falls mainly in the winter. 

(b) Where it falls mainly in the spring. 

(c) Where it falls mainly in the summer. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii 

Page 
Other Weather Conditions in Dry Areas 59 

(a) The manner of the precipitation. 

(b) The character of the temperature. 

(c) The character of the winds. 



CHAPTER IV 
SOILS IN DRY AREAS 

1. Some Characteristics of Western Soils 61 

(a) They are essentially brown in color. 

(b) They are unusually rich in mineral matters. 

(c) They are relatively low in humus. 

(d) They have much power to hold moisture. 

(e) The characteristics of a good dry soil. 

2. Some Characteristics of Subsoils in Dry Areas 64 

(a) In many instances they are much like the surface 
soils. 

(b) They favor the correct movement of moisture. 

(c) Some characteristics that. are undesirable. 

3. Clay Loam Soils in Dry Areas 67 

(a) What is meant by clay loam soils. 

(b) The prevalence of clay loam soils. 

(c) The superiority of clay loam soils. 

4. Sandy Loam Soils in Dry Areas 68 

(a) What is meant by sandy loam soils. 

(b) The extent to which these prevail. 

(c) The relative value of such soils. 

5. Silt Soils in Dry Areas 69 

(a) What is meant by silt soils. 

(b) The extent to which these prevail. 

(c) The relative value of silt soils. 

6. Volcanic Ash S.oils in Dry Areas 71 

(a) What is meant by volcanic ash soils. 

(b) The extent to which these prevail. 

(c) The relative value of volcanic ash soils. 

7. Gumbo Soils in Dry Areas 72 

(a) What is meant by gumbo soils. 

(b) The extent to which these prevail. 

(c) The relative value of gumbo soils. 

8. Alkali Soils in Dry Areas 73 

(a) What is meant by alkali soils. 

(b) The extent to w^hich these prevail. 

(c) The relative value of alkali soils. 

(d) How such soils may be made productive. 

9. Production As An Index of Soil Qualities 76 

(a) Sage brush and what it indicates. 

(b) Greasewood and what it indicates. 

(c) Sparse vegetation and what it indicates. 

(d) The grasses and what they indicate. 



xiv TABI^E OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER V 

SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 

Page 

1. How Water Occurs in Semi-Arid Soils 80 

(a) As free water. 

(b) As capillary water. 

(c) As hygroscopic water. 

(d) As run-off water. 

2. The Functions of Water in Soils 84 

(a) To dissolve plant food in the soil. 

(b) To transport food solutions to the plant. 

(c) To maintain proper growth in the plant. 

3. How Soil Moisture May Be Lost 85 

(a) By evaporation at the surface. 

(b) By transpiration through plant growth. 

(c) By leaching out of the subsoil. 

4. Loss OF Moisture by Evaporation 87 

(a) How moisture is lost by evaporation. 

(b) The extent of such loss. 

(c) How such loss may be reduced. 

5. Loss OF Moisture by Transpiration 92 

(a) How moisture is lost b}^ transpiration. 

(b) The extent of such loss. 

(c) How such loss may be reduced. 

(d) Transpiration and hot winds. 

G. Other Influences That Affect Evaporation 95 

(a) Evaporation as affected by latitude. 

(b) Evaporation as affected by altitude. 

(c) Evaporation as affected by the humus supply. 

7. The Importance of Subsoil Moisture 96 

(a) The function of moisture in the subsoil. 

(b) How to secure moisture in the subsoil. 

(c) How to retain moisture in the subsoil. 

8. The Utilization of Subsoil Moisture 99 

(a) The extent to which it may be drawn upon. 

(b) Drawing upon it to no good purpose. 

(c) When a reserve of moisture is specially helpful. 



CHAPTER VI 
PLANT GROWTH IN^DRY AREAS 

1. Some Features Peculiar to Such Orowth 103 

(a) It is more sparse than in humid areas. 

(b) It is more or less dwarfish. 

(c) It tends to an abundant fruitage. 

(d) It is made chiefly in the early season. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xv 

Page 

2. The Leading Functions of Water in the Soil 106 

(a) To improve its physical condition. 

(b) To act upon it chemically. 

(c) To regulate the temperature. 

(d) To carry food to plants. 

3. Reducing the Loss of Water in Dry Areas 107 

(a) By storing it deeply in the soil. 

(b) By surface cultivation. 

(c) By keeping down weed growth. 

(d) By shading as when mulching. 

4. The Seasonal Use of Moisture 110 

(a) Adaptation in plants to winter rainfall. 

(b) Adaptation in plants to spring rainfall. 

(c) Adaptation in plants to variable rainfall. 

(d) Adaptation in plants to the season of dependable 
moisture. 

5. Root Development in Dry Areas 112 

(a) The functions of roots in plants. 

(b) Why active root growth should be sought. 

(c) Why deep root growth should be sought. 

(d) Why strong root growth should be sought. 

6. The Superior Quality of Dry Farm Crops. . 114 

(a) They are richer in dry matter than other crops. 

(b) They are possessed of essentially more nutrition. 

(c) The proportion of the grain to the straw is high. 

(d) They are usually higher in palatability. 

7. Weed Growth in Dry Areas 115 

(a) How weeds are introduced. 

(b) How weeds are distributed. 

Xc) Why the seeds live long in the soil, 
(d) Why farms should be clean in dry areas. 

8. The Tendency in Grain Plants to Volunteer. 117 

(a) The seasons for such volunteering. 

(b) The evils that flow from volunteering. 

(c) How volunteering may be lessened. 

(d) How volunteering may be remedied. 



CHAPTER VII 
PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 

1. The Object Sought in Plowing 121 

(a) To break up the land to adinit moisture and air. 

(b) To make a seed bed for the crop. 

(c) To aid in cleaning the land. 

2." The Time for Plowing 125 

(a) Plowing in the spring. 

(b) Plowing in the summer. 

(c) Plowing jn the autumn. 



xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

3. The Depth to Plow 128 

(a) When plowing should be deep. 

(b) When plowing should be shallow. 

(c) When to vary the depth in plowing. 

4. The Kind of Plow to Use 131 

(a) The mold-board plow and its place. 

(b) The disc plow and its place. 

(c) The deep tilling machine and its place. 

5. Power to Use in Plowing.. 134 

(a) The place for farm animals in plowing. 

(b) The place for steam power in plowing. 

(c) The place for gasoline power in plowing. 

6. Good Plowing in Dry Areas 136 

(a) The importance of good plowing. 

(b) The essentials of good plowing. 

(c) The care of the plow. 

7. Subsoil Plowing in Dry Are.a.s 137 

(a) What is meant b)'" subsoil plowing. 

(b) The benefits from subsoil plowing. 

(c) When subsoiling should be practised. 

8. The Frequency of the Plowing 139 

(a) When farming land just broken. 

(b) When plowing summer-fallow. 

(c) When to disc rather than plow. 



CHAPTER Vlll 
CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 

1. The Subsoil Packer and Its Use 143 

(a) The subsoil packer described. 

(b) When and how it should be used. 

(c) When and where it should not be used. 

2. The Disc and Its Use 145 

(a) The disc described. 

(b) When and how it should be used. 

(c) When and where it should not be used. 

3. Cultivators Other Than the Disc 149 

(a) Cultivators suitable for dry areas described. 

(b) When and how they should be used. 

(c) When and where they should not be used. 

4. Harrows and Their Uses 154 

(a) Harrows suitable far dry areas described. 

(b) When and how they should be used. 

(c) When and where they should not be used. 

o. Rollers and Their Uses 158 

(a) Rollers suitable for dry areas described. 

(b) When and how they should be used. 

(c) When and where they should not be used. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii 

Page 

6. Flankers and Their Use 160 

(a) Flankers suitable for dry areas described. 

(b) When and how they should be used. 

(c) When and where they should not be used. 

7. Seed Drills and Their Uses 163 

(a) Seed drills suitable for dry areas described. 

(b) When and how they should be used. 

(c) When and where they should not be used. 

8. Maintaining the Dust Mulch in Dry Areas 165 

(a) What is meant by the dust mulch. 

(b) The place for the dust mulch. 

(c) How to maintain the dust mulch. 

9. The Summer-Fallow in Dry Areas 168 

(a) W^hat is meant by the summer-fallow. 

(b) The place for the summer-fallow. 

(c) How to manage the summer-fallow. 

10. Cultivating Crops in Dry Areas 170 

(a) The crops that may be cultivated. 

(b) The character of the cultivation. 

(c) The extent 'of the cultivation. 



CHAPTER IX 
SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS ^ 

1 . The Advantage From Drill Sowing 173 

(a) The seed is buried to a uniform depth. 

(b) The depth may be varied to suit the conditions. 

(c) The ground may be compressed above the seed. 

(d) There is a saving in the seed. 

2. The Disadvantages of Broadcasting 175 

(a) The seed cannot all be placed in moist ground. 

(b) The seed is buried too unevenly for even germi- 
nation. 

(c) The hazard from harrowing the grain is increased. 

(d) The place for broadcasting in dry areas is limited. 

3. Amount of Seed to Sow 177 

(a) Why light seeding is to be preferred. 

(b) About half the amounts used in humid areas will 
suffice . 

(c) Allowance for losses in harrowing. 

4. The Time to Sow Autumn Grain 179 

(a) Why early sowing is to be preferred. 

(b) Why late sowing should be avoided. 

(c) The conditions suitable for sowing. 

5. The Time to Sow Spring Grain 181 

(a) Why it should be sown early. 

(b) Why it should not be sown late. 

(c) The conditions suitable for sowing. 



xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

6. The Depth to Sow 184 

(a) The influence of the soil. 

(b) The influence of the moisture. 

(c) The influence of the seed. 

(d) The influence of the season. 

7. The Nurse Ceop and Sowing 186 

(a) But httle place for it in dry areas. 

(b) When it may be used. 

(c) When it may not be used. 

8. The Time for Planting 187 

(a) The influence of the crop. 

(b) The influence of the soil. 

(c) The influence of the season. 

(d) Why planting may be done -relatively early. 

9. The Methods of Planting 189 

(a) Planting in hills. 

(b) Planting in drills. 

(c) Planting on the broadcast plan. 



CHAPTER X 
CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 

1. Crops That Should Be Grown 191 

(a) Those that will grow best under a light precipi- 
tation. 

(b) Those that will best endure dry atmospheric con- 
ditions. 

(c) Those that mature early rather than late. 

2. Small Cereal Crops That May Be Grown 193 

(a) The place for wheat in dry areas. 

(b) The place for flax in dry areas. 

(c) The place for rye in dry areas. 

(d) The place for barley in dry areas. 

(e) The place for oats in dry areas. 

(f) The place for speltz in dry areas. 

(g) The place for peas in dry areas. 

3. Fodder Crops That May Be Grown 199 

(a) The place for corn in dry areas. 

(b) The place for sorghum in dry areas. 

(c) The place for non-saccharine sorghums. 

(d) The place for millets and mixed grains. 

4. Hay Crops That May Be Grown 202 

(a) The place for hay crops in dry areas. 

(b) Hay plants that will not grow well. 

(c) Hay plants that will succeed best, 
(d) Hay from certain of the cereals. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xix 

Page 

5. Roots and Tubers That May Be Grown 205 

(a) The place for field roots in dry areas. 

(b) The place for tubers in dry areas. 

(c) The hazard to be avoided in growing them. 

6. Fruits and Vegetables That May Be Grown 208 

(a) The place for srnall fruits in dry areas. 

(b) The place for large fruits in dry areas. 

(c) The place for vegetables in dry areas. 

(d) The place for fruits yet to be introduced. 

7. Trees and Windbreaks That May' Be Grown 210 

(a) Trees for shelter in dry areas. 

(b) Trees for timber in dry areas. 

(c) Trees for fence posts in dry areas. 

8. Cultivated Crops That May Be GroWxNT 211 

(a) Cereals that may be cultivated. 

(b) Fodder crops that may be cultivated. 

(c) Legumes that may be cultivated. 

(d) Other crops that may be cultivated. 



CHAPTER XI 
GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 

1. Growing Wheat, Winter and Spring 214 

(a) The soils for w^heat. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

2. Growing Rye, Winter and Spring 236 

(a) The soils for rye. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

(g) For green manure. 

3. Growing Flax 244 

(a) The soils for flax. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

4. Growing Barley 250 

(a) The soils for barley. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 



XX TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

Growing Barley — Continued. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvestmg the crop. 

5. Growing Oats 254 

(a) The soils for oats. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

6. Growing Speltz 260 

(a) The soils for speltz. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

7. Growing Peas 266 

(a) The soils for peas. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

(g) For green manure. 



CHAPTER XII 
GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 

1. Growing Corn 269 

(a) The soils for corn. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Planting the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvest i4ig the crop. 

2. Growing the Sorghums 285 

(a) The soils for sorghum. 

(b) Place m the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Planting the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

3. Growing Potatoes , • • • • 291 

(a) The soils for potatoes. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xxi 

Page 
Growing Potatoes — Continued 

(d) Planting the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

4. Growing Field Beans 296 

(a) The soils for beans. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Pl-anting the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

5. Growing Field Roots 299 

(a) The soils for field roots. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

6. Growing Artichokes 307 

(a) The soils for artichokes. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Planting the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 



CHAPTER XIII 
GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 

1. Growing Alealfa 310 

(a) The soils for alfalfa. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting for hay. 

(g) Harvesting for seed, 
(h) Duration of the crop, 
(i) Plowing alfalfa sod. 
(j) Miscellaneous facts. 

2. Growing the Common Clovers 322 

(a) The soils for clovers. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. ^\ 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting for hay. 

(g) Harvesting for seed, 
(h) Duration of clovers. 



xxii- TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Page 

3. Growing Sainfoin 327 

(a) Soils for sainfoin. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting for hay. 

(g) Harvesting for seed. 

4. Growing Vetches 330 

_(a) Soils for vetches. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting for hay. 

(g) Harvesting for seed. 

5. Growing Cow Peas 333 

(a) 'Soils for cow peas. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting for hay. 

(g) Harvesting for seed. 

6. Growing Sweet Clover 335 

(a) Soils for sweet clover. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting for hay. 

(g) Harvesting for seed, 
(h) As a green manure. 



CHAPTER XIV 
GROWING HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 

1. Growing Timothy 340 

(a) The soils for timothy. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

(g) Combinations for timothy. 

2. Growing Western Rye Grass 343 

(a) The soils for western rye grass. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xxiii 

Page 

Growing Western Rye Grass — Continued 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

(g) Combinations for western rye grass. 

3. Growing Brome Grass 346 

(a) The soils for brome grass. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

(g) Combinations for brome grass. 

4. Hay From Grains 349 

(a) Grains grown alone for hay. 

(b) Grains grown in combination for ha}'. 

(c) The soils for such grain. 

(d) Place in the rotation. 

(e) Preparing the soil. 

(f) Sowing the seed. 

(g) Care of the crop. 

(h) Harvesting the crop. 

5. Hay From Millets 353 

(a) The soils for millet. 

(b) Place in the rotation. 

(c) Preparing the soil. 

(d) Sowing the seed. 

(e) Care of the crop. 

(f) Harvesting the crop. 

(g) Combinations for millet. 

6. Pasture Crops From Grass 355 

(a) Pasture crops grown singly. 

(b) Pasture crops grown in combination. 

(c) The soils for pasture crops. 

(d) Place in the rotation. 

(e) Preparing the soil. 

(f) Sowing the seed. 

(g) Grazing the pastures. 

7. Pasture Crops From Grain 359 

(a) Pasture from grains grown alone. 

(b) Pasture from grains grow^n in combination. 

(c) The soils for grain pastures. 

(d) Place in the rotation. 

(e) Preparing the soil. ;| 

(f) Sowing the seed. ^ 

(g) Grazing the pastures. 



xxiv TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XV 

GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 

Page 

1. Can Trees and Fruits Be Grown in Dry Areas. ..... 364 

(a) The great significance of the answer. 

(b) The results obtained will differ greatly. 

(c) The aid of water is sometimes necessary. 

2. What Should Be Sought in Growing Trees 367 

(a) Primarily to furnish protection for the home. 

(b) To furnish protection to the fruits grown. 

(c) To furnish posts for fencing. 

3. What Should Be Sought in Growing Fruits 367 

(a) To grow those such as give promise of success. 

(b) To grow them mainly for the home. 

(c) To grow them as soon as may be practicable. 

4. Trees Suitable for Dry Areas 368 

(a) Those suitable for windbreaks. 

(b) Those suitable for groves. 

(c) Those suitable for fence posts. 

(d) Those suitable for hedges. 

5. Fruits Suitable for Dry Areas 370 

(a) Small fruits that may be grown . 

(b) Medium fruits that may be grown. 

(c) Large fruits that may be grown . 

6. Making Ready to Plant Trees and Fruits 372 

(a) General outline of the plan. 

(b) Preparing the ground. 

(c) The season for planting. 

(d) Where to secure the stock. 

7. Planting and Caring for Trees 376 

(a) Planting trees for windbreaks. 

(b) Planting trees for groves. 

(c) Planting trees for fence posts. 

(d) Care of the trees after planting. 

8. Planting and Caring for Fruits 379 

(a) Planting large fruits. 

(b) Planting medium fruits. 

(c) Planting small fruits. 

(d) The care of fruits after planting. 

(e) Growing vegetables in fruit orchards. 

(f) Applying water to orchards. 



CHAPTER XVI 
ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 

Positive Reasons for Rotation in Humid Areas 383 

(a) To maintain an equilibrium in plant food. 

(b) To maintain an equilibrium in mechanical soil 
conditions. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xxv 

Page 
Positive Reasons for Rotation in Humid Areas — Continued. 

(c) To maintain an equilibrium in the humus supply. 

(d) To matniain an equilibrium in the labor con- 
ditions. 

2. Negative Reasons for Rotation in Humid Areas 385 

(a) To prevent the undue accumulation of weeds. 

(b) To prevent the undue increase of insects. 

(c) To prevent imdue increase in ftmgous diseases. 

(d) To prevent the shifting of soils by water and 
winds. 

3. Incidental Benefits From Rotation 388 

(a) Reducing the hazard from crop failure. 

(b) The more complete maintenance which it brings. 

(c) The wider diversity in live stock production which 
it gives. 

(d) The salutary influence which it exerts on markets. 

4. Additional Reasons for Rotations in Dry Areas. . . . 390 

(a) To prevent the loss of moisture that does not 
enter the soil. 

(b) To prevent the loss of moisture in the soil. 

(c) To increase the moisture content in the soil. 

(d) To make farming possible and profitable. 

5. Rotation By Alternating Fallow and Grain 392 

(a) How such rotation is conducted. 

(b) The benefits from such rotation. 

(c) The area for such rotation. 

(d) The objections to such rotation. 

6. Rotations by Alternating Cultivated Crops and 
Grains ". 395 

(a) How" such rotation is conducted. 

(b) The benefits from such rotation. 

(c) The area for such rotation. 

(d) The objections to such rotation. 

7. Rotation Which Combines Fallow and Cultivated 
Crops 397 

(a) How such rotation is conducted. 

(b) The benefits from such rotation. 

(c) The area for such rotation. 

(d) The objections to such rotation. 

8. Rotations Which Include Grass Crops 399 

(a) How such rotation is conducted. 

(b) The benefits from such rotation. 

(c) The area for such rotation. 

(d) The objections to such rotation. 

9. Rotation That Should Not Be Followed 401 

•(a) Growing small grains in a long succession. 

(b) Growing pastures for many successive years. 

(c) Growing alfalfa fOr many successive years. 

(d) Growing small grains except on cultivated land. 



xxvi TABLE OF CONTENTS 



CHAPTER XVII 

MAINTAINING FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 

Page 

1. Soils in Dry Areas Are Usually Fertile 405 

(a) Because of inherent richness in the soil particles. 

(b) Because the subsoil is very similar in composition. 

(c) Because little has been lost by leaching. 

(d) Because of the moving of the soil by rodents. 

2. The Loss of Fertility in Dry Areas 406 

(a) Many claim that it will never be lost. 

(b) Every crop grown and sold removes fertility. 

(c) The loss is less rapid than in humid climates. 

(d) The restoration when lost is more difficult. 

3. The Sources of Fertility in Dry Areas 408 

(a) Food furnished directly by the soil. 

(b) Food carried up from the subsoil. 

(c) Food liberated by cultivation. 

(d) Food furnished by legumes. 

4. How TO Increase Fertility in Dry Areas 410 

(a) By growing legumes. 

(b) By applying farm manures. 

(c) By applying artificial fertilizers. 

(d) How to increase the available fertility. 

5. The Supply of Humus in Dry Areas 413 

(a) It is less than in humid areas. 

(b) Why it is less than in humid areas. 

(c) More difficult to increase it than in humid areas. 

(d) It is lost less readil)^ than in humid areas. 

6. The Sources of Humus in Dry Areas 415 

(a) Organic matter that decays on the surface. 

(b) The roots and stubbles of plants. 

(c) Green crops grown and buried. 

(d) Farmyard manures. 

7. The Benefits From Humus in Dry Areas 417 

(a) It improves the physical structure of soils. 

(b) It adds to their moisture-holding power. 

(c) It furnishes food to plants in a readily available 
form . 

(d) It lessens the lifting of soil by winds. 

8. How to Increase Humus in Dry Areas 420 

(a) By growing and burying non-leguminous plants. 

(b) By growing alfalfa. 

(c) By growing and burying the Canadian field pea. 

(d) By growing and burying the sand vetch. 

(e) By growing and burying sweet clover. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS xxvii 

CHAPTER XVIII 

LIVE STOCK ON THE DRY FARM 

Page 

1. Why Stock Should Be Kept On the Dry Farm 425 

' (a) To prevent waste on the farm. 

(b) To prevent waste on the range. 

(c) To encourage diversity in production. 

(d) To maintain fertility in the land. 

(e) To increase the revenues from the farm. 

2. The Kind of Live Stock to Grow 427 

(a) Deciding this question is difficult. 

(b) Some of the determining influences. 

(c) The kinds of stock that must be grown. 

(d) The kinds of stock that may be grown. 

3. Stocking the Dry Farm 428 

(a) Why the introduction should be gradual. 

(b) The stock that a dry farm will carr}-. 

(c) The wisdom of not overstocking. 

4. Horses on the Dry Farm 430 

(a) The utilization of brood mares. 

(b) The early wintering of horses. 

(c) The large return for the numbers kept. 

(d) Foods that may be fed to horses. 

5. Dairy Cattle on the Dry Farm 431 

(a) The foods to feed in summer. 

(b) The foods to feed in winter. 

(c) When the cows should be dry. 

(d) Disposing of the product. 

6. Beef Cattle on the Dry Farm 432 

(a) They will be grown by two methods. 

(b) How grown when the calves are hand fed. 

(c) How grown when suckled by the dams. 

(d) Disposal of the product. 

7. Sheep on the Dry Farm < 434 

(a) When grown on the farm. 

(b) When simply fattened on the farm. 

(c) Disposal of the product. 

8. Swine on the Dry Farm 430 

(a) In conjunction with dairying. 

(b) Where dairying is not practised. 

(c) Disposing of the product. 

9. Poultry on the Dry Farm ' 437 

(a) The excellence of the conditions for growing it. 

(b) The foods for poultry. 

(c) Disposing of the product. 

10. Influences That Bear Upon the Area of the Dry 

Farm 438 

(a) The amount of the precipitation. 

(b) The capacity of the individual. 

(c) The st3de of the farming followed. 



xxviii TABLE OF CONTENTS 

CHAPTER XIX 

THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 

Page 

1. The Scarcity of Water : 442 

(a) This fact should be carefully considered. 

(b) Various results from the determinations. 

(c) The two principal sources of water. 

(d) The abundance of ground water. 

(e) The available character of ground water. 

(f) The necessity for determinations. 

2. Why Water Is Scarce 444 

(a) Because of the low precipitation. 

(b) Because of the character of the precipitation. 

(c) Because of the hardness of the unbroken soil. 

(d) Because of the chinook winds. 

(e) Because of the rapid evaporation. 

3. The Sources of Water in Detail 446 

(a) Water caught from roofs and in draws. 

(b) Water which comes from springs and streams. 

(c) Water which comes from irrigating ditches. 

(d) Water which comes from wells. 

(e) Water which comes from artesian sources. 

4. How Water That Falls May Be Saved 449 

(a) By constructing cement lined cisterns. 

(b) By erecting dams of proper construction. 

(c) By piping from distant springs. 

5. How Water May Be Raised 450 

(a) By wind power. 

(b) By gasoline power. 

(c) By steam power. 

(d) By electrical power. 

6. Reserve Water and Home Building 452 

(a) Essential to operations in the home. 

(b) Essential sometimes in the garden. 

(c) Essential sometimes in the orchard. 

(d) Essential sometimes in growing shelter belts. 

(e) Essential soinetimes to the keeping of live stock. 

7. Applying Reserve Water to the Soil 455 

(a) The ordinary limit of such application. 

(b) The small amount that is called for. 

(c) Citation of instances of application. 

8. Dry Farming With Very Light Rainfall 456 

(a) Crops grown at Indian Head, Sask., in 1894. 

(b) Crops grown in Utah in 1910. 

(c) Crops grown in Montana in 1910. 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 



Page 

Dry Land Grain in Washington 6 

Ranch Home in Yellowstone Coi,inty, Montana 29 

First Prize Land Exhibit from Oregon 51 

The Spalding Deep Tilling Machine 132 

Breaking with Steam Power in North Dakota 135 

Three-Section Dunham Packer and Pulverizer 145 

The Minnesota Chief Spring Tooth Harrow 149 

The Deere Clod Crusher, Leveller and Smoother 151 

Planet Jr. Combined Drill Seeder, Wheel Hoe, Cultivator and 

Plow 153 

The Janesville Hallock 12-foot Riding Weeder 155 

One Section of the Ajax Steel Lever Harrow 157 

The Dandy Dunham Steel Land Roller 160 

The Home Made Planker 162 

The Single Disc Drill 164 

The Double Disc Drill 165 

The Sixty-Penny Spike Tooth Wooden Home Made Harrow. . 168 

The Disc Press Drill 177 

Dry Land Wheat near Kalispell, Montana .... * 195 

The Deere 14-Tooth Steel Lever Cultivator 200 

Dry Land Durum Wheat, near Great Falls, Montana 215 

Dry Land Kubanka Wheat, Fergus County, Montana 222 

Dry Land Durum Wheat, Cascade County, Montana 226 

Dry Land Wheat, Lewis and Clark County, Montana 230 

Dry Land Headed Wheat, Opal Prairie, Oregon 232 

Harvesting Dry Land Wheat, Rosebud County, Montana. . . . 235 

Dry Land Rye, Lewis and Clark County, Montana 240 

Dry Land Rye, Rosebud County, Montana 242 

Dry Land White Hulless Barley, Dawson County, Montana. . . 253 
Dry Land Canadian White Oats, Fergus County, Montana. . . . 255 

Dry Land Sixty-Day Oats, Choteau County, Montana 257 

Dry Land Oats, Flathead Valley, Montana 259 

Dry Land Fodder Corn near Broadview, Montana 272 

The Surface Cultivator 278 

Dry Land Fodder Com Grown near Sherwood, North Dakota 281 
Dry Land Com, Rosebud County, Montana 283 



XXX LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page 

Dry Land Sweet Sorghum, Rosebud County, Montana 288 

Dry Land Potatoes, Choteau County, Montana 294 

Dry Land Potatoes near Kalispell, Montana 295 

Dry Land Mangels, Flathead County, Montana 300 

Dry Land Carrots, Flathead County, Montana 303 

Dry Land Turnips, Flathead County, Montana 306 

The Alfalfa Renovator 311 

Dry Land Alfalfa, Yellowstone County, Montana 313 

The Deere Alfalfa Cultivator 317 

Dry Land Alfalfa 2 years old, Harney County, Oregon 320 

Dry Land Clover and Timothy near Redmond, Oregon 325 

Dry Land Western Rye Grass, Western Montana 344 

Dry Land Young Apple Orchard in Flathead County, Montana 365 

Dry Land Apple Orchard near Kalispell, Montana 373 

Dry Land Six-year Wagner Apple Trees, Bonner's Ferry, Ida. 377 

Dry Land Squash, Yellowstone County, Montana 381 

Sheep on Range Pastures, Yamhill County, Oregon 435 

Swine Grown on Dry Land Farm near Hobson, Montana 437 

Drv Land Montana Farm Garden 453 



CHAPTER I 
WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 

The term "Dry Farming" is now applied to the grow- 
ing" of crops in all areas where the precipitation is so light 
that special methods of tillage have to be resorted to in 
order to grow crops with a reasonable measnre of success. 
In a sense it is a misnomer. To those who may not 
understand the way in which it is used, the hazard is 
present that it w^ill convey the impression that it refers 
to farming that is conducted in the absence of moisture. 
Many haA^e objected to the term for the reason given 
above, and for the further reason that its use tends to 
prejudice those who are seeking homes with reference 
to land that must avowedly be farmed on the dry farm- 
ing plan whatever that may mean. 

The efifort has been made to change the name, but 
without success, and it has failed for the following rea- 
sons : (1) The term is in itself essentially correct, as it 
refers to farming under dry conditions. Every one 
knows, or ought to know, that farming cannot be con- 
ducted in the absence of moisture. (2) It carries with it 
the idea that the precipitation is less than that which or- 
dinarily falls in humid and sub-humid climates, a truth 
that one seeking a home in such areas ought to know be- 
fore he makes his choice, otherwise he is going to be dis- 
appointed and possibly to the extent of being discour- 
aged. (3) It would seem to be almost impossible to 
substitute a name that will so well characterize the class 
of the farming that is to be pursued in these areas. 

What dry farming does not mean.— Of course dry 
farming does not mean the growing of crops without 
moisture. That would be an absurdity. But it does 
mean growing them with a less amount of moisture than 
would be successful in producing them without resorting 



2 DRY LAND FARMING 

to special methods of cultivation. It rather means grow- 
ing them under varying degrees of precipitation, running 
all the way from a little below what is normal to the 
lowest quantity that will result in production by any 
method of tillage that may be adopted. 

It does not mean the growing of crops in all areas 
where precipitation falls. In some of these the precipi- 
tation is so light that even tilled crops cannot be success- 
fully grown. The degree of the precipitation essential 
to the growing of paying crops in dry areas is a greatly 
varying factor, since it is influenced by the character of 
the soil and the nature of the evaporation. 

It does not mean the growing of tilled crops every 
year on the same land. This, though quite feasible in 
humid climates, is not entirely so in dry areas. In these, 
under some conditions, it is possible to grow only one 
crop in two years. Under other conditions the number 
of the crops grown in succession is increased. It does 
not occur very often, however, that crops can be obtained 
every year. In nearly all instances it is necessary occa- 
sionally to devote one season to the storing up of soil 
moisture in the soil and subsoil, as a reserve for the 
needs of the crops that follow. 

It does not mean the growing of crops to the exclu- 
sion of live stock. It would not be quite correct to say 
that the grazing of live stock on the open range comes 
under the head of dry farming, for farming includes the 
idea of cultivating the soil. On the other hand, the 
keeping of live stock is not only not incompatible with 
dry farming, but is in a certain sense supplementary to 
it. The dry land farmer is not only a grower of grain 
and other products, but he may be also a grower of live 
stock. 

The food that he grows may be, and is in many in- 
stances, used in feeding live stock grazed on his own ara- 
ble farm, or on rugged lands adjacent thereto. In some 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 3 

areas the keeping of live stock may with propriety be- 
come a feature of dry land farming from the very outset. 

Nor does dry farming mean the growing of all crops 
proper to the latitude. Some of these may succeed ad- 
mirably in a certain latitude when the rainfall is normal, 
and yet they may partially or entirely fail when it is 
less than normal. Other crops, even of the same spe- 
cies, may succeed because of greater inherent ability to 
withstand drought and hard conditions generally. Such 
crops only should be grown in dry areas as may show 
reasonable adaptation for the same. 

What dry farming does mean. — Dry farming means : 
(1) growing crops under semi-arid conditions; (2) grow- 
ing crops where the moisture is normally deficient; (3) 
growing them where moisture is temporarily deficient, 
and (4) growing special crops by special methods. 
Shortage in the moisture supply is the dominant thought 
that underlies any definition that may be framed regard- 
ing dry farming. 

Where arid conditions prevail, crops cannot be 
grown successfully without the aid of irrigation. In 
such areas there may be rain, but it is not enough to 
produce vegetation that is of any special value without 
the aid of man, and even with his aid it cannot be made 
profitable in the absence of irrigation. Where semi-arid 
conditions prevail, nature unaided produces growth, but 
it is sparse and deficient rather than generous and ample. 
Under these conditions, however, growth may be made 
so to aid nature in her effort, that production sparse and 
niggardly may be supplemented by production generous 
and even bountiful within certain limitations. In some 
of these areas the farmer has been able to grow more 
than 70 bushels of No. 1 hard wheat per acre on land 
that called for 10 to 20 acres of pasture to carry a cattle 
beast weighing 1,000 pounds through the year. The 
border line between arid and semi-arid production runs 



4 DRY LAND FARMING 

along between areas where the precipitation is so short 
that man cannot secure profitable production therefrom in 
the absence of irrigation, and where he can secure the 
same, notwithstanding the shortage in the precipitation. 
This border line is not alone determined by the amount 
of precipitation, but also by the season when it comes 
and by the soil, subsoil and climate. The precipitation 
that forms this dividing line, therefore, cannot be stated 
precisely in inches, as it will vary with the conditions. 
It is not far, however, from 8 to 10 inches. 

Where dry farm methods are practised, the precip- 
itation is usually so short that special methods of culti- 
vation are necessary in order to produce good crops. 
But some seasons it may be enough to grow such crops 
without resorting to these methods. Since it cannot be 
known beforehand when such seasons will come, the 
land in those areas should be tilled every season with 
a view to meet the exigencies of a dry season the follow- 
ing year should it come. Even though it should not come 
the labor thus expended will not be lost, because of the 
helpful influence that such careful handling of the soil 
will have on the production. The amount of the pre- 
cipitation that will make production profitable cannot be 
stated definitely in inches, as it will vary from the same 
causes that lead to variation under arid conditions. Good 
crops can be grown almost any season where the normal 
precipitation runs, say, 10 to 15 inches. These figures, 
however, are not given as the minimum or maximum of 
the precipitation called for as essential to the growth of 
crops in semi-arid areas. 

While the practise of dry farming methods has, until 
the recent past, been confined wholly or almost wholly 
to areas where the normal precipitation is more or less 
deficient for the best needs of the crops every year, it 
is now coming to be practised in modified form in areas 
where the annual precipitation is enough or more than 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 5 

enough to meet the needs of the crops were it properly 
conserved. Nearly all areas, howsoever large the rain- 
fall may be, have a dry period more or less prolonged 
during the season of growth in the crops. To provide 
for such periods, more or less moisture should be con- 
served, and the methods for conserving it are essentially 
the same as for conserving moisture in dry areas. 

All the species of crops that may be grown success- 
fully in a certain latitude where the rainfall is ample 
cannot be grown with the same success, if, indeed, they 
can be grown at all, under dry farming methods. The 
same is true of varieties of the species. The crops grown 
must be special, as it were ; that is, those must be given 
the right of way which show the highest adaptation, as 
it were, for the conditions under which they are grown, 
nor can these be grown by the same methods as obtain 
in the growing of the same varieties when moisture is 
abundant. These special crops and the special methods 
of growing them will be discussed at length in another 
place (see chapter X). 

Growing special crops. — The crops grown by dry 
farming methods must in a sense be special. This means 
they must to some extent at least be special with refer- 
ence: (1) to class and to variety; (2) to drought-resist- 
ing qualities ; (3) to capacity to gather food ; (4) to early 
maturity, and (5) to methods of cultivation. 

All classes of crops that have adaptation for being 
grown in a certain latitude have not by any means the 
same adaptation for being grown under semi-arid condi- 
tions. It would be vain to try to make a marked suc- 
cess of growing such species in these, (1) as flourish 
best in a moist atmosphere ; (2) that call for much pre- 
cipitation relatively while they are growing, and (3) that 
make the larger portion of their growth late in the 
season. The common vetch furnishes an example of the 
first, clover of the second and certain field roots of the 



DRY LAND FARMING 



third. The same is true of many varieties within the 
species. They may not have the staying qualities which 
enable them to endure what may be termed trying con- 
ditions for growth, while these may be possessed by other 
varieties of the same class and which may be less valu- 
able than the former, when grown under favorable con- 
ditions. This explains in part at least why in the dry 
country some rugged varieties of spring wheat are gen- 




DRY LAND GRAIN GROWN NEAR PALOUSE, WASHINGTON. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 

erally preferred to varieties which may have superior 
milling qualities. 

It is essential that the crops grown shall be drought- 
resistant in a marked degree. The difference in plants 
in this respect is very marked. It explains why certain 
species of sage brush flourish where the most drought- 
resistant grasses may fail, and why Kafir corn and Milo 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 7 

maize may succeed. Alfalfa, because of its power to 
resist drought, will through all time be one of the 
most important crops that will ever be grown in semi- 
arid areas. The difference in the drought-resisting quali- 
ties within the species is very considerable, as in the 
far greater power that western rye grass has to resist 
drought than timothy. But the difference in these quali- 
ties between species is even greater, as sage brush will 
cling to life where western rye grass could not survive. 

The difference in the ability of plants to gather food 
in the soil is very marked. This difference may arise : (1) 
from the character of the root development ; (2) from 
the area in which they feed, and (3) from the power which 
inheres in them to gather food. The roots of alfalfa go 
far down into the ground, hence it can gather food from^ 
an area beyond the reach of the roots of many other 
plants. This area is also frequently relatively well sup- 
plied with moisture. Some plants produce the larger 
portion of the growth not far from the surface, as tim- 
othy for instance, hence these are ill adapted to dry con- 
ditions. Other plants have more inherent power to gath- 
er food from a given soil area, as rye of the winter or 
spring varieties, hence they have relatively higher ad- 
aptation to dry conditions. This goes far to explain why 
rye may succeed under conditions that would not suffice 
to produce a paying crop of wheat. 

Under nearly all conditions in the semi-arid country 
the weather becomes very dry as the harvest season 
approaches, and in consequence crops that mature late 
may be seriously harmed by this condition. Because 
of this, crops that mature early are relatively better 
adapted to dry areas than those that mature late. This 
fact cannot be disregarded when deciding as to the spe- 
cies and varieties that shall be grown. The earlier that 
the dry period usually comes the more important it is 
that the crops grown shall mature early. This explains 



8 DRY LAND FARMING 

why in the semi-arid areas winter crops are chiefly grown 
when the rainfall is greatest in winter, and is followed by 
dry weather by the time when summer arrives. They 
mature in advance of the coming of the dry weather. 

The methods of cultivation by which crops may be 
grown have a marked influence on the choice of the crops 
to be grown. Those that may be given the largest 
amount of cultivation during growth, other things being- 
equal, are the most likely to succeed. Because of this 
such crops as corn and sorghum are most likely to suc- 
ceed. Next to these are crops that may be disced or 
harrowed more or less while they are growing, such as 
alfalfa and the small grains. The most difficult crops to 
grow in dry areas are grasses, since they are given little 
or no cultivation while they are growing. From what 
has been said it is evident that in a dry country the range 
of the crops grown is less wide than the same in a humid 
country. 

Growing crops by special methods. — In dry areas 
crops are usually grown by special methods, that is by 
methods that differ more or less from the methods usual- 
ly followed in humid areas. The methods relate: (1) 
to the preparation of the soil ; (2) to sowing or planting 
the crop ; (3) to the cultivation given subsequently to 
planting, and (4) to the order in the succession in which 
they are grown. The methods to be followed in prepar- 
ing the soil and in planting and cultivating the crops will 
be given in detail later. At this time the aim will be 
simply to call attention to the sense in which these opera- 
tions are special. 

The preparation of the land is special in the pains 
taken to increase the moisture supply in the soil, and 
to hold it in the same until it is needed for the crops. 
In humid climates but little attention is paid to increas- 
ing the moisture content in the soil. Generally speaking 
the supply is ample in these to germinate the grain. 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 9 

It is not so in semi-arid areas. The special methods 
resorted to in the latter thus to increase the moisture 
supply include, deepening the tillage by plowing and sub- 
soiling, packing the soil when plowed, and maintaining 
on it a dust mulch, and by observing much precision as 
to timeliness in performing all these operations. They 
may be practised more or less in humid climates, but in 
these they are much less needed, and when called for 
there is much more of latitude as to the time when the 
work shall be done. In the latter they may be largely 
omitted or carelessly done, and yet a crop of consider- 
able value may be reaped. In the former such omission 
or carelessness would almost certainly be followed by fail- 
ure. In humid climates an excess of water reaches the 
soil, insomuch that special means must be resorted to 
with a view to remove it. These include the making and 
maintaining of open ditches and the construction of un- 
derdrains. These are seldom or never wanted in dry 
areas ; on the other hand, measures are frequently adopted 
to prevent water from running away should it come in 
the form of a downpour, an occurrence that is not infre- 
quent in some parts of the arid country. 

The methods of planting are special with reference 
to the time of sowing the seed, to promptness in sowing 
the s^me, to the quantity that is sown, and to the man- 
ner of sowing. In humid climates, the time covered by 
the season for sowing or planting is relatively long; 
in dry areas it is short, as, unless the crop is sown at the 
right season, the dry weather that invariably comes later 
may damage or destroy the crop. The seed called for in 
dry areas is much less than in humid areas to meet the 
conditions of growth that the moisture supply will best 
maintain. In dry areas the seed must go down to moist 
soil or germination is pretty certain to fail, a result 
which is much less likely in humid areas. 

In humid areas cereal crops are not usually given 



10 DRY LAND FARMING 

any cultivation after they are planted. In dry areas 
it is the exception to grow these without some cultiva- 
tion. It is usually given in the form of harrowing. Har- 
rowing the crop after it appears may make the differ- 
ence between securing a fair crop and virtually no crop 
at all. The management of cultivated crops is not great- 
ly different in humid and in dry areas, save in the degree 
of the same called for. The cultivation called for in the 
latter is considerably greater in degree than in the 
former. It may also be profitably extended to the alfalfa 
crop. 

In all areas a certain order of succession in the crops 
is helpful. In those that are humid the succession is 
much wider than in those that are arid. The rotations 
in the former may be varied, and yet each may prove 
satisfactory. In dry areas it is very different. The ro- 
tations peculiar to and also suitable to each are restrict- 
ed. This arises from the limited amount of the moisture, 
that is available. In some dry areas but one cereal crop 
can be grown in two years. In others two crops may be 
grown in three years, and in yet other instances three 
crops may be grown in four years (see p. 397). But in 
all these instances, special methods of cultivation are 
called for. 

How climates may be classified. — -With reference to 
precipitation and production, climates may be classified : 
(1) as arid; (2) semi-arid; (3) sub-humid, and (4) humid. 
It is not possible to state in figures, other than in an ap- 
proximate way, the amount of the precipitation that 
properly belongs to one or the other of these classifica- 
tions, since precipitation is by no means the only factor 
that influences production. It is greatly influenced by 
soil conditions and by the dryness or the humidity of 
the atmosphere, in other words by the degree of the 
evaporation. 

An arid country is one in which paying crops cannot 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 11 

be produced by the ordinary processes of cultivation. 
The degree of the aridity may be partial or total. It 
may produce sparse growing shrubs as sage brush and 
greasewood and even grass, but the production of grass 
will be quite limited. Even the shrubs that can stand 
drought best will not grow closely together, as, if they 
should start thus, the moisture supply would not be 
enough for each. It may be arid : (1) because of the 
scant precipitation that falls on it ; (2) because of the 
lack of plant food in the soil ; (3) because of the pres- 
ence in excess of certain substances in the soil, as alkali, 
which are so unfavorable to plant life as to make it im- 
possible to produce, until the substances inimical to 
vegetation are removed or modified in their chemical 
properties. These influences may act separately or in 
conjunction. The more nearly they act in conjunction, 
the greater is the degree of the aridity. More commonly 
however, aridity is caused by an insufficient precipita- 
tion. In the major portion of the area that is arid in the 
western states, the soil is not only rich in the elements of 
plant food, but it is in many instances remarkably so. 
This is especially true with reference to the mineral 
constituents, and it arises, first, from the store of these 
in the original rock constituents from which the soils were 
derived, and, second, from the little loss in the same 
through leaching. Soils of this class are greatly pro- 
ductive when irrigating waters are intelligently applied 
to them. 

The amount of the precipitation that results in arid- 
ity is much influenced by the physical character of the 
soil, by the degree of the evaporation, and by the season 
at which the bulk of the precipitation falls. A soil un- 
duly porous calls for more precipitation to render it 
productive that one that has an amount of porosity most 
favorable to the retention of moisture, without being 
antagonistic to aeration. The longer the season for 



12 DRY LAND FARMING 

growth and the drier and \^6armer the climate, the more 
rapid is the evaporation. The less the precipitation dur- 
ing the period of growth, the more of the same that is 
called for to carry production beyond the point of arid- 
ity. The amount of the precipitation that will limit 
aridity, therefore, cannot be exactly stated ; it is a shift- 
ing quantity. In the northern states the country is 
classed as arid when the annual precipitation is not more 
than, say, 7 to 8 inches on the average. In the mountain 
states far south it would seem correct to say that from 8 
to 10 inches would be called for to effect the same end. 
The maximum limit of rainfall in arid America is not far 
from 9 inches. 

A country may be classed as semi-arid when it will 
produce paying crops, but only by what may be termed 
special processes of tillage. It may produce trees of such 
species as are able to endure hard conditions, shrubs pos- 
sessed of similar characteristics, and also grasses that 
grow but for a limited portion of the period of possible 
growth. The influences that qualify semi-aridity are the 
same in kind as those which determine aridity, but they 
are less in degree, hence it is not easy to define the limits 
of semi-aridity in terms of the degree of the precipitation. 
Ordinarily a country may be classed as semi-arid when 
the annual average precipitation is not less than 9 inches 
nor more than 18 inches. When the annual average 
precipitation is not more than 15 inches, special methods 
of tillage are necessary in order to insure profitable pro- 
duction. 

These methods, which are given elsewhere, have spe- 
cial reference to the conservation of moisture in the soil 
(see pp. 165-172). The production which may be secured, 
especially in the form of grain, is very gratifying. It is 
more easily obtained and is much greater in degree as a 
rule in areas where the natural precipitation is supple- 
mented by subterranean water moving laterally in the 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 13 

soil and so near the surface as to aid more or less the 
growing crops. In semi-arid areas the precipitation some 
seasons may be so increased as to render them sub-humid 
for the time being. In such seasons production may be 
secured by the ordinary methods of tillage. In other sea- 
sons it may be so low as to render them for the time 
being in a sense arid, but both these extremes are ex- 
ceptional. But since it cannot be known when they will 
come, the special methods of handling these soils when 
preparing them for being cropped should never be 
omitted. 

Sub-humid areas are those in which crops may or- 
dinarily be grown every year, but wherein some seasons 
the precipitation is so light that partial failure follows in 
the absence of special measures to conserve the moisture 
in the soil, and that which comes to it. The precipitation 
in sub-humid climates may run from, say, 18 to 27 inches. 
In these the precipitation may occasionally fall so 
low as to make them temporarily semi-arid. In other 
instances it may be so abundant as to carry them tem- 
porarily into the humid class. The aridity of these may 
in some instances be such as to make crop production 
difficult, and in other instances the humidity may be 
such as to call for drainage to carry away the excess of 
water from the soil. In cultivating these soils some of 
the practises followed in cultivating dry areas will ren- 
der production more sure than it would otherwise be. 
Sub-humid areas have special adaptation for profitable 
production, as the precipitation is usually enough to 
produce a crop with proper tillage and it is seldom enough 
to destroy it or even to seriously harm it. Nor is it 
enough to remove very much fertility through leaching. 

Humid climates are those in which the precipitation 
is such that production is reasonably sure every year 
from the ordinary processes of tillage. In these the 
precipitation is not only heavy, but in sympathy there- 



14 DRY LAND FARMING 

with the dews are heavy and the air is moist. The rain- 
fall is frequently so excessive that drainage in one form 
or another must be given the most careful attention by 
those who till the soil. In such areas the precipitation 
is 27 inches in the year and upwards. In some maritime 
areas it is as much as 70 inches and upwards. Where 
the precipitation is very heavy the loss' to the soil in 
fertility through leaching is considerable, and the remov- 
al of soil by denudation is quite frequently very serious. 
Notwithstanding, in nearly all even of the areas that are 
humid there is a dry season in which the crops may suf- 
fer in the absence of measures to protect the moisture, 
that is, in the absence of some of the operations that 
apply in tilling semi-arid areas. 

The influences that affect aridity. — Foremost among 
the influences that affect aridity is the amount of the 
precipitation. When this is too low for successful crop 
production under the conditions present, no matter how 
favorable the other qualifying influences are, the effort 
to grow paying crops must fail. These qualifying influ- 
ences include: (1) the character of the precipitation; (2) 
the season of the same; (3) various influences that affect 
moisture evaporation, and (4) those which affect filtra- 
tion and the leaching of moisture in the soil and sub- 
soil. Because of 'these qualifying influences, the results 
to be expected from a given amount of precipitation 
cannot by any means be definitely forecasted. They will 
vary greatly. The amount that would suffice to produce 
a given result in one instance would be wholly inade- 
quate in another instance, and yet it would seem safe to 
make the statement that crop production would be vir- 
tually quite safe and remunerative where the rainfall 
is not less than 15 inches on ordinary soils, and that it 
should be generally safe and remunerative where the 
rainfall is not less than 9 to 10 inches. These statements 
are based on experience and observation. Where the 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 15 

rainfall is less than, say, 10 inches, the production is more 
or less uncertain. 

The character of the precipitation is far-reaching 
in its influence. Should it come in the form of a cloud- 
burst or even of a downpour which is not a cloudburst, 
the hazard is present that much of it will be lost by run- 
ning away over the surface, and that it will carry to lower 
levels more or less valuable soil. Should it come in 
the form of snow, the benefit to the soil and crops will 
be governed largely by the condition of the soil when it 
melts, and by the manner of the melting. If the ground 
is frozen hard and deeply below the snow and it thaws 
quickly, only a small amount of it will reach the soil, 
but if on the other hand the ground is but little frozen, 
much of the resultant water will find its way into the 
soil, more especially when the soil has recently, been 
stirred to a good depth. On the other hand, if it vanishes 
slowly in a dry atmosphere much of it will be absorbed 
by the same, thus never reaching the ground. Should 
the showers come very lightly and with considerable 
frequency, they may do but little good, as without an 
excessive amount of harrowing on cultivated land, the 
loss of moisture could not be wholly or even chiefly pre- 
vented. The greatest benefit results from 'the precipita- 
tion when it comes moderately and in considerable 
amounts at a time, and not too frequently. Nearly all the 
influences named, it will be observed, are quite beyond 
the control of man. 

The season of the precipitation is quite as important 
as the character of the same, if not indeed more so. The 
greater the amount of the precipitation relatively that 
falls during the growing season, the greater is the por- 
duction likely to be that arises therefrom. In much of 
the western portion of the semi-arid country, more than 
50 per cent, of the precipitation comes during the season 
of growth. Westward in the same, more of it comes 



16 DRY LAND FARMING 

relatively in the late .autumn and in the winter months, 
which so far is less favorable to production except in 
the case of a limited number of varieties of cereals and 
grasses, but the loss is counterbalanced in a considerable 
degree by the relatively large proportion of the precipi- 
tation that falls in winter which may enter the soil at 
that season, because of the limited extent to which it re- 
mains frozen. Precipitation that is most timely, on thje 
whole, is that which falls but lightly in the winter season 
and freely in the season of growth. 

Prominent among the influences that affect the evap- 
oration of moisture are: (1) winds; (2) abundant and 
hot sunshine, and (3) low humidity. The more dry and 
warm the winds that blow over a given area, the more 
forceful that they are, and the more constantly that 
they blow, the greater is the amount of the moisture that 
they remove from the soil. 

In the arid and semi-arid areas, the air is much less 
moisture-laden than in humid areas; hence it takes 
moisture more readily from the Soil. In much of the 
bench land and prairie areas, the winds blow with con- 
siderable force and with no little constancy, especially 
during the spring months. Unless it is prevented, they 
will carry with them much of the moisture that is in the 
soil. In the absence of preventive measures, so much 
will have been lost that before the summer is well 
under way the vegetation will languish. The hotter the 
winds the more rapidly do they draw on soil moisture, 
as transpiration from the plants is relatively more rapid. 
The almost constant sunshine tends to draw heavily 
on the moisture in the unprotected soil, and the heat of 
the same proportionately intensifies this condition. The 
heat of the summer sunshine is greatest in the valleys, 
hence the drain on moisture in these is relatively great- 
est ; on the higher elevations the degree of the heat is 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 17 

relatively less, and the drafts on soil moisture are rela- 
tively decreased. 

The physical texture of the soil and subsoil exerts a 
marked effect on the filtration and leaching of water in 
the soil. Coarse sandy and gravelly soils lose water 
much more readily than soils that have a considerable 
clay element in them. Since more of the precipitatfon 
that falls on the former is lost through the downward 
movement of the waters, it follows that these are consid- 
erably less favorable to crop production in semi-arid re- 
gions than the latter. This also goes far to explain why 
it is possible to grow good crops on the bench lands more 
easily and surely than in the river basins of the west 
in the absence of irrigation. The soils in the latter are 
usually much more porous in texture. The larger the 
amount of humus in the soil the less will be the losses 
from filtration and leaching. 

The dominant idea in dry farming. — The dominant 
idea in dry farming is in a sense two-fold. It seeks to 
secure to the greatest extent practicable the con- 
servation and also the accumulation of moisture in the 
soil. To accomplish this end the soil is stirred deeply, 
whether by the aid of the plow alone or by following 
the plow with the subsoiler, or by using some other 
implement, as the deep tilling machine. The ground is 
compressed subsequent to plowing, and a dust mulch 
is maintained upon the surface. The increase of organic 
matter in the soil is also sought. 

To say that dry farming seeks the conservation of 
moisture states only half the truth. Moisture cannot be 
conserved in the soil until it enters the same. 

It is of prime importance, therefore, that the pre- 
cipitation shall be made to enter the soil to the greatest 
extent possible under the existing conditions. It will 
be able to enter the soil when it falls upon it in propor- 
tion : (1) to the loose condition in which the soil is kept 



18 DRY I.AND FARMING 

on and near the surface ; (2) to the depth to which it has 
been stirred by the implements of tillage, and (3) to the 
measures taken to arrest precipitation that is violent 
in character. When the soil is thus treated in semi- 
arid areas, there should be an accumulation of moisture 
uy^ to a certain limit. The determination of that limit will 
depend upon such influences as the amount of the normal 
precipitation, the extent to which measures have been 
adopted for conserving the moisture, and to the extent 
to which the soil moisture is drawn upon by the crops 
that are grown. The increase of the moisture content 
in the soil and subsoil is clearly shown in a comparison 
made of soils in the semi-arid areas that have never 
been tilled and similar soils adjacent that have been 
tilled judiciously for a term of years. The increase of 
moisture in the latter is marked. The methods of con- 
serving moisture are given in chapters VII and VIII. 

The deep stirring of the soil and subsoil not only 
admits the moisture more readily, but it increases the 
holding capacity of the soil. When moisture falls it 
descends quickly in the spaces between the particles of 
soil in the cultivated section of the same, and but slowly 
in the undisturbed subsoil, that is, when the subsoil is 
naturally dense. If the soil has not been stirred at all, 
much of the precipitation that falls on such soils in semi- 
arid areas runs away over the surface. When stirred, 
the moisture enters the soil quickly as far as it has been 
stirred. In such instances the holding capacity of these 
soils is soon met, hence any excess of moisture falling 
at such a time runs away over the surface. Increase, 
therefore, in the depth to which the soil has been stirred 
within a comparatively recent period, means increase in 
the capacity of the soil to receive moisture. For the dis- 
cussion on the deep stirring of the soil, see pp. 129, 133. 

The object sought in compressing the soil is to 
prevent the escape of moisture from land that has been 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 19 

recently plowed. The plowing causes the particles to 
lie loosely. The dry air enters readily and passes between 
them in its onward movement, and in its exit carries 
away more or less of the moisture. The more prompt 
and complete the compression, the less is the loss of 
moisture. The object of the soil mulch is to prevent 
the escape of moisture that moves upward in the soil 
on the principle of capillarity. The dust mulch may be 
maintained most readily in land that is summer-fallowed, 
because of the unlimited opportunity given for renewing 
it. It may also be readily maintained in areas that are 
planted to crops which call for cultivation while they 
are being grown. It may be maintained in cereals in 
many instances until these become large enough to form 
for themselves what may be termed a shade mulch. Most 
difficult of all is it to maintain a dust mulch on grasses. 
In many instances it may be unwise to attempt this. 
For the further discussion of the retention of soil 
moisture, see pp. 1G5-1T2. 

Organic matter in the soil increases its power to 
hold moisture and in a marked degree. In the process of 
decay it absorbs moisture as a sponge absorbs water, 
thus influencing its passage downward or upward. It 
tends to fill the soil spaces in leachy soils so that water 
cannot percolate down through them so readily. It 
has been said that in semi-arid areas a soil well supplied 
with organic matter will grow an equal crop on half the 
amount of the precipitation that will be called for by a 
soil similar in its physical constituents but destitute of 
organic matter. Organic matter also influences favor- 
ably the physical condition of the soil and furnishes food 
in a readily available condition for the feeding of crops. 
See also pp. 414-423. 

Contrasted with farming in humid areas. — Dry farm- 
ing differs from other farming in at least the following 
senses: (1) It is confessedly more difficult. (2) It calls 



20 DRY LAND FARMING 

for more exact work. (3) It maintains superior clean- 
liness in the soil. (4) It is in a sense high-class farming. 
From what has been stated, the claim that is sometimes 
made that dry farming methods are essentially the same 
as those followed in other states is not tenable. Dry 
farming methods are essentially different in some 
respects from those practised in humid areas. In the 
latter in some instances the all-important idea is to 
remove moisture from the soil, whereas in the former 
it is to conserve moisture in the same. 

That dry farming is more difficult than humid farm- 
ing will be at once apparent from the consideration that 
the returns from dry farming rest chiefly on the extent 
to which moisture is conserved in the soil, whereas in 
humid areas but little attention is called for with refer- 
ence to this phase of farming. The measures which 
secure the conservation of moisture call for the expendi- 
ture of added labor that in many instances is not neces- 
sary under the humid conditions. The excess of the 
labor thus called for increases with increase of the 
degree of the shortage in the normal precipitation. In 
humid areas the farmer may get a crop in a favorable 
season from very imperfect methods of cultivation. In 
semi-arid areas such a result very seldom follows. In 
humid areas defective methods of farming may result 
in more or less of a crop and is seldom followed by com- 
plete failure. In dry areas the hazard is very frequently 
present that such methods will be followed by entire 
failure in the crop. Some of the phases of dry farming 
are more difficult than others. This is especially true of 
the pasture problem because of the difficulty in applying 
methods that will conserve moisture in the pastures. 

Farming in dry areas calls for more exact work than 
farming in humid areas: (1) in the preparation of the 
soil; (2) in the time of sowing the crop; (3) in caring 
for the same. In humid areas at least partial crops may 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 21 

be secured from indifferent methods of soil preparation. 
In dry areas this result will seldom follow. In the former 
it is seldom necessary to conserve moisture to aid in 
growing the next crop. Ii> dry areas it is indispensably 
necessary. In humid areas but little attention is called 
for in firming the seed bed by artificial methods, in dry 
areas such firming of the seed bed is essential to success. 

In humid areas the season for sowing is much more 
prolonged both in the spring and in the autumn than in 
those that are dry, hence timeliness in sowing is relatively 
more important. In the former sowing or planting that 
is delayed beyond the usual time may not result in crop 
failure or even in greatly diminished yields in all 
instances. In the latter it will commonly result in failure 
that is absolute or approximately so. Early sowing, 
though important in all areas, is relatively less so in 
moist areas, as in these the moisture necessary to mature 
good crops is much more likely to be present than in dry 
areas. In the latter it is absolutely essential to sow crops 
in good season to avoid the hazard of failure. 

When caring for the crops in humid areas, what is 
not done today may in many instances be done nearly 
if not quite as well tomorrow. The moisture content in 
the soil, especially in so far as it relates to a sufiiciency 
for seed germination, is practically assured. In dry 
areas the moisture that is not conserved today may in a 
considerable degree be lost tomorrow. In humid areas it 
may not be necessary to compress and pack the lower 
surface of the soil when preparing the seed bed. In dry 
areas this may be greatly important. In humid areas it 
may not be necessary to harrow cereals after growth has 
begun. In dry areas this may be indispensable to success. 

In the very nature of things dry farming will result 
in greater freedom from weed growth than farming in 
humid areas. In the former the natural conditions are 
much less favorable to germination and growth in weeds 



22 DRY LAND FARMING 

than in the latter. The processes of cultivation that are 
absolutely essential to the conservation of moisture in 
dry areas are proportionately destructive to weed life. 
These processes include those involved in carefully 
summer-fallowing for certain crops, as wheat, when pre- 
paring the seed bed; careful attention when growing other 
crops, as corn ; careful harrowing of cereals during the 
early stages of growth, and careful discing of the stubble 
land at some time previous to plowing it. In humid areas 
these processes are chiefly necessary for the purpose of 
cleaning the land, but in dry areas they are even more 
necessary because of their influence on the retention of 
moisture. Weeds that fail to mature may work but 
little harm in a summer-fallow in humid areas. In dry 
areas they may prove fatal to successful growth in the 
crop that follows. 

That dry farming is in a sense high-class farming is 
evidenced: (1) in the skill that is necessary to so manip- 
ulate the soil that it will grow sure and paying crops ; 
(2) in the carefulness that must be observed in these 
manipulations ; (3) in the promptness that must be 
shown in every detail of the work. 

The dry land farmer must understand the treatment 
that must be given to his particular class of soil, when 
the hazard if not the certainty of failure is to be avoided. 
He must give it such treatment, howsoever these man- 
ipulations may conflict with the practises followed when 
seeking simular results in humid climates. He must 
know the methods pertaining to soil preparation, plant- 
ing and cultivating that will best meet the needs of the 
soil that he tills under the climatic conditions that are 
present; he must also know the succession in crop pro- 
duction that must be chosen or avoided to insure 
successful crop production. The carefulness that must 
be observed in these manipulations is shown in the 
necessity that is ordinarily present for packing the soil 



WHAT IS MEANT BY DRY FARMING 23 

at once when it is plowed, of deepening the cultivated 
area to increase its moisture-holding power, and of main- 
taining a smooth and fine surface mulch or one that is 
furrowed and uneven so as to best meet the conditions 
of the precipitation. 

In every detail of the work the farmer must observe 
promptness. To defer plowing land for one week when 
it is in proper condition may make the difference between 
success and failure in growing a crop of winter wheat, 
howsoever carefully the land may be managed sub- 
sequently. The loss of one day in harrowing land after 
a considerable rain may result in the loss of a large part 
of the moisture that is brought to the soil. Neglecting 
to make a dust mulch on autumn plowed ground in the 
early spring, may result in a loss of moisture that may 
be followed by a loss of crop, a result that the timely 
establishing of such a mulch might have prevented. 

From what has been said, it will be very evident that 
dry farming calls for a high order of intelligence in order 
to conduct it on the most approved lines. The careless 
farmer who follows shipshod methods may secure a 
livelihood after a fashion from the soil in humid areas, 
but he cannot do this in dry areas. It is a foregone con- 
clusion that he will utterly fail. The great mistake of 
dry land farmers who come from humid areas is that of 
trying to grow crops by methods that brought them 
results in humid areas. These methods will not avail. 
Dry land farming is special farming. It is done by 
special methods, and the first duty of those who engage 
in it is to ascertain what those methods are. 



CHAPTER II 
THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 

When dry farming began will never be known now. 
There are good reasons for believing, however, that it 
had its origin not far from where the human race was 
cradled, or at least not far from the mountain on which 
the ark rested soon after the flood. That region is dry 
now. There are no evidences to show that it was humid 
in the centuries that immediately followed the flood, and 
yet it was near Ararat that the peopling of the world 
began for the second time. It is not reasonable to sup- 
pose that those ancient peoples lived entirely on animal 
food, for many of them were not nomads. If other food 
was used, it was produced by the soil, and it is prepos- 
terous to suppose that it was all grown by irrigation. 

The antiquity of dry farming. — That some of the 
greatest nations of antiquity practised dry farming can- 
not now be questioned. That they practised irrigation 
also cannot for one moment be doubted. That the area 
then that was dry farmed was vastly greater than the 
area that was irrigated was doubtless as true as it is to- 
day. The evidence is conclusive that centuries long 
before the Christian era dry farming was not only 
practised, but that the existence of populous nations 
depended upon crops grown mainly by dry farm methods. 

The exact methods by which dry land crops were 
grown in the centuries of long ago is a secret that will 
never be revealed. It lies entombed with the men who 
grew the crops. That the method of growing them, 
however, was essentially the same as it is today cannot 
be doubted, for crops cannot be grown in the absence of 
irrigation in dry areas and in the absence of moisture 
conservation, and moisture conservation cannot be 
properly maintained unless the surface soil is frequently 



THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 25 

stirred at certain seasons of the year. In ancient days, 
however, the work was chiefly done by hand labor, where- 
as now it is done by the aid of suitable implements drawn 
by horses or by other power. 

Tunis furnishes an excellent illustration of the 
extent to which dry farming was practised by some of the 
nations of the old world long centuries ago. It was in 
ancient Tunis that the mighty and populous cities of 
Phoenicia rose and fell. According to Widtsoe the 
average rainfall in Tunis is about 9 inches. In some parts, 
however, it considerably exceeds that amount. History 
has made it clear that in the early centuries Tunis fur- 
nished the Roman Empire with immense quantities of 
wheat and olive oil. In the seventh century, Tunis had 
from two to three millions of olive trees in full fruitage 
in the absence of irrigation. Even today the agriculture 
of Tunis is large relatively and also in the aggregate. 

While of course it can never be known fully where 
dry farming was and was not practised in ancient days, 
the evidence is conclusive that it was practised by many 
peoples. Both India and China were populous long cen- 
turies before the Christian era. In both of these coun- 
tries there are wide areas in which large populations 
could not have been maintained in the absence of dry 
farming. Central Europe and Western Asia were in- 
habited and numerously before the Christian era. These 
areas are dry now and there are no good reasons for 
believing that the climate has materially changed. 
Portions of southeastern Europe and of Asia Minor 
were not favored with an abundant rainfall in ancient 
days nor are they now, and yet anterior to the Christian 
era they sustained prosperous communities. There 'are 
also good reasons for believing that the Indians of Mexico 
practised dry farm methods in the dry area of that coun- 
try in the long-forgotten centuries. 



26, DRY LAND FARMING 

Mistaken views as to its history. — The popular con- 
ception of dry farming with reference to the time when 
it began, the place where it originated, the area where it 
was first practised, and with reference to its early pro- 
moters is wholly at sea. That conception looks upon it 
as something that has orginated within years of the recent 
past, that it originated in the western United States, and 
that it is, as it were, a discovery for which western 
America is entitled to a patent. It has also associated 
with these ideas the names of certain men now living, 
who are looked upon as the discoverers of the system of 
dry farming. It looks up to them reverentially as being 
the fathers of the system. Nothing can be farther from 
the truth than these mistaken conceptions. 

It has been shown in the preceding paragraph that 
dry farming was practised even before the dawn of 
history. The popular conception of it would restrict it 
virtually to the past decade. With reference to the 
advanced methods observed in conducting it, this may 
be true, but the fact remains that the great nations of 
antiquity, with the exception of Egypt, were cradled in 
areas where dry farming was much practised. 

The popular conception of dry farming looks upon 
the western states of the Union as the place where it has 
been cradled. It has already been shown that it was 
practised by the peoples of various nations even prior 
to the Christian era. It will also be shown in succeeding 
paragraphs that dry farming is today practised in certain 
extensive areas on each of the continents. 

This conception would confine it mainly to western 
America, whereas in each of the continents, including 
Australia, is an area probably as large as that of the 
United States which must be farmed if farmed at all by 
the methods that obtain in dry farming. It is at least 
questionable if the land that must be farmed by the 
dry farming plan, if farmed at all, does not exceed the 



THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 27 

area that is farmed or that may be farmed by the methods 
that obtain where humid farming is practised. 

From what has been said, it will be apparent that 
it will never be known who were the orginators of dry 
farming. It is more than probable that the methods 
followed orginated at least to a considerable extent in 
the various countries in which they were practised. The 
claim of any one now living, therefore, to be the origin- 
ator of dry farming methods is simply absurd, and the 
acknowledgment of that claim by the public shows an 
almost total lack of knowledge regarding the facts that 
bear upon its origin. 

Widtsoe has made it clear in his admirable book 
"Dry Farming" that dry farming as practised in the 
western states was the evolution of an experience that 
does not in many instances go back beyond the middle 
of the last century. He has made it clear that this 
experience was gained independently and mainly in the 
four distinct centers, Utah, California, Washington and 
the Great Plains country. Further reference will be 
made to this evolution (see p. 35). The methods followed 
in these independent areas came to centre around a 
system that is practically uniform. This system included 
deep plowing, perferably fall plowing, conserving the 
moisture by surface cultivation, light seeding and devot- 
ing with more or less frequency an entire season to con- 
serving moisture in the soil without cropping it. 

These misconceptions have doubtless originated 
chiefly in the wide publicity given to the dry farming 
propaganda that is now being conducted with so much 
vigor in the states that lie to the west of the Mississippi 
river. For this publicity the "Dry Farming Congress" 
organized in 1907 is largely responsible. To the major 
portion of the people of the United States the conception 
is new, hence the conviction that the science itself is 
new. To this country, however, belongs the credit of 



28 DRY LAND FARMING 

greatly improving the system and of reducing it, as it 
were, to a science and of riveting the attention of the 
outside world on the merit that inheres in these improve- 
ments. 

Dry farming in the United States. — Dry farming as 
now practised in the United States has been evolved 
within the last 50 years. That the evolution took place 
in various centres acting independently and without inter- 
communication is accepted by those who know the facts. 
The chief centres of this evolution were Utah, California 
and the Great Basin area, the Great Plains country, the 
Mountain States, the Columbia river basin, and the 
Colorado and Rio Grande river basins. Although the 
methods practised were largely, if not entirely, of inde- 
pendent development, they all led to the one great central 
truth that underlies successful practise in dry areas, viz. : 
the conservation of the moisture that falls to the greatest 
extent that may be practicable. 

It would seem fair to concede that Utah led in the 
introduction of dry farming. There is evidence to show 
that it was practised to some extent by the Mormons 
as early as 1855. In 1863 dry farming was begun by 
Scandinavians in the vicinity of Bear River City. A 
year or two later Christopher Layton began to grow 
crops on the Sand Ridge between Ogden and Salt Lake 
City, a region in which dry farm crops have been grown 
for many years. Simultaneously, or a little later, George 
L. Farrell introduced dry land farming into the Cache 
valley, where it has been practised with increasing success 
down to the present time. Gradually the work extended 
through other portions of Utah, insomuch that dry land 
farming is now the chief slogan of the Utah farmers. 

For several decades dry farming has been practised 
with at least fair success in certain portions of California. 
The chief centres of such practise in former years were 
the valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin rivers, but 



THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 29 

now it is practised more or less in various areas in the 
state. 

In the Great Basin country with Nevada as a centre 
(see p. 52), are some areas where farming has been prac- 
tised for more than 40 years without the aid of water. 
The products grown incUide grain, chiefly wheat, corn, 
some of the sorghums and fruit. The rainfall in much 
of this area is very light, in some places as low or lower 




RANCH HOME, YELLOWSTONE COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 



than 10 inches, hence the extension of dry farming has 
not been so rapid as in areas that are favored with greater 
precipitation. 

In the Great Plains area which drains from the 
Rocky Mountains into the Mississippi (see p. 50), dry 
farm crops have been grown with more or less success 
from the Canadian boundary to Texas, and in some locali- 



30 DRY LAND FARMING 

ties for more than 30 years. In many instances, however, 
they have not been grov^n on the dry land plan, and, as a 
result, crop failure through drought and hot v^inds has led 
to the temporary abandonment of certain areas westward 
in the Dakotas, Nebraska and Kansas. These areas are 
now being farmed successfully by farmers who have 
learned something of the secret of conserving moisture. 
During all the years of failure there were individual 
instances of success, which makes it clear that much 
of the failure that resulted could have been avoided. The 
greater annual- rainfall in much of this area did not 
emphasize the necessity of moisture conservation as it 
did in other areas. It was in this region in 1894 that 
H. W. Campbell began his work on its present basis, 
which he has since denominated "Scientific Soil Culture." 

In the Inter-mountain states with Wyoming as a 
centre, dry farming has been .successfully practised by 
individuals, but until a comparatively recent period, it 
was confined to limited areas. But there are isolated 
instances in which it has been practised for two to three 
decades. 

In the Columbia river basin which has its centre. in 
Washington (see p. 51), wheat has been grown success- 
fully for many years and also many other crops. In the 
neighborhood of Walla Walla it has been grown for 
more than a generation and with practically undiminished 
yields. There is an immense area in this region which 
has become famous for growing wheat although the rain- 
fall is very light. 

In the Colorado and Rio Grande river basins (see 
p. 52), crops have been grown for many years in limited 
areas on the dry land plan. In New Mexico especially 
are groups of farmers who have farmed thus for a num- 
ber of years. 

In the face of these facts, it is incredible that any one 
man could have been chiefly responsible for introducing 



THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 31 

this system into so many independent centres. It is true, 
nevertheless, that the drought that so generally prevailed 
during 1893-95, and especially in 1894, resulted in im- 
pressing upon the minds of western farmers, as never be- 
fore, the absolute need of observing carefully the princi- 
ples that must obtain where moisture is to be preserved. 
Those principles were largely evolved in those several 
communities from the chaos of repeated mistakes in 
farming the land. 

Dry farming in Europe. — In western Europe, the 
precipitation is so great as to preclude the necessity for 
dry farming methods. In eastern Europe crops cannot 
be successfully grown by any other system. The same is 
true of certain portions of central and southern Europe. 

The semi-arid portion of eastern Europe is practically 
confined to Russia. The area in which the precipitation 
is low is very large, not less, probably, than one-fourth of 
the entire country. In the southeastern portion the 
shortage is most marked. That part of Russia bears con- 
siderable resemblance to the Great Plains country in the 
United States. Dry farming methods have been more or 
less practised in Russia for many years, but the practise 
of these has been crude and imperfect. Recently, how- 
ever, the government is introducing more advanced 
methods. 

The areas of central Europe that call for dry farming 
are not nearly so extensive, nor is the shortage in the 
precipitation so great. One of the driest areas is found 
in certain portions of the Austrain Empire and the states 
that are adjacent thereto, more especially on the eastern 
border. 

In some parts of southern Europe the normal rain- 
fall is much less than could be desired. Because of this, 
irrigation is practised in various places in the Mediter- 
ranean countries where water is attainable. Where 



33 DRY LAND FARMING 

it is not, there is much room for the practise of dry farm- 
ing methods. 

Dry farming in Asia. — In very large areas in Asia 
the annual precipitation is very light, hence crops, if 
grown at all, must be grown by dry farming methods in 
the absence of irrigation. These areas are found both 
north and south of the Himalaya mountains, and also in 
the southwestern provinces. 

North of the Himalaya mountains are vast areas of 
semi-arid country, and considerable areas that are arid. 
The extent of these is not accurately known. The rain- 
fall is very light, hence only such plants can be grown 
as are markedly drought-resistant. It is in this region 
that some of the hardiest of the alfalfa crops are found. 

Large areas in India and China have a long season 
during which rain does not fall. In some of these, the 
precipitation at the usual season is plentiful, in others 
it is not copious. In either case, the necessity for 
practising dry farm methods is always present and in 
the latter instances it is imperatively necessary. In China 
especially, dry farming is of great antiquity, but even 
now the methods practised are crude. 

In southwestern Asia there are very large areas 
that are semi-arid. This applies to all or nearly all 
of Asia Minor, Palestine and Arabia. Much of the 
latter country is positively arid. In all of these there is 
great room for the practise of dry farming. The areas 
that can be tilled by the ordinary methods in the absence 
of irrigation are very limited, and especially in Arabia 
are extensive areas that are positively and in many in- 
stances hopelessly arid. 

Dry farming in Africa. — Dry farming has been prac- 
tised in certain parts of Africa from the remotest times. 
Especially is this true of the states of northern Africa 
which border upon the Mediterranean, but it is also true 



THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 33 

of south Africa and of other areas in the same dark con- 
tinent. 

The Mediterranean states are Morocco, Algiers, 
Tvmis, Tripoli and Egypt. In Egypt rain is practically 
unknown. In the other states the rainfall is very light. 
In some parts of Tunis it is frequently below 10 inches, 
and yet in that country much attention is given to the 
growth of agricultural products, especially the production 
of wheat and olive oil. Notwithstanding the dry char- 
acter of the climate in these states, they support a rela- 
tively high population. 

In south Africa, especially in the Transvaal country, 
much. attention is beginning to be given to dry farming 
methods. The rainfall in much of the Transvaal is below 
20 inches, hence the necessity for practising these meth- 
ods. McDonald has done and is doing much for the ex- 
tension of dry farming in this part of Africa. In other 
areas of Africa and in various parts of the continent, 
the necessity for growing crops by these methods is im- 
perative. It is from the dry regions of Africa that some 
of the most drought-resistant crops have been obtained, 
especially Milo maize and Kafir corn. 

Dry farming in other areas. — In many other areas 
dry farming has been practised — in some for a longer or 
shorter period, in some instances for centuries. These in- 
clude portions of the Canadian west, of Mexico and of 
the Central American states on this continent, and very 
large areas in Soutfi America and Australia. 

In certain portions of the Canadian west, especially 
in southern Alberta and southern Saskatchewan, dry farm 
methods have been practised for about a quarter of a cen- 
tury and with much success. Notably is this true of the 
work done by Mr. Angus Mackay, the efficient superin- 
tendent of the experiment farm at Indian Head, Sask. No 
other station or farm in all the west has furnished a 
record for so long and continuous a period of the results 



34 DRY LAND FARMIINJG 

obtained from dry farming. The alternate fallow and 
crop system has been practised at that station since 
1888 (see p. 392). 

It was in southern Alberta that the growing of hard 
winter wheat under dry conditions was first introduced 
into western Canada. Not greatly distant from the Rocky 
Mountains^ certain individuals have grown it there suc- 
cessfully for two to three decades. 

Dry farming has been practised in certain portions 
of Mexico for centuries. When first visited by the mis- 
sionaries of the Catholic church certain of the Indian 
tribes, especially those inland and in northern Mexico, 
practised dry farming. The methods then followed had 
evidently been practised during preceding centuries. It 
is the only method by which a large part of Mexico yet 
untilled can be reclaimed. The same may be said of cer- 
tain portions of the Central American states. 

In South America dry farming is now being practised 
both east and west of the Andes, and in states far to the 
southward. In Brazil especially, dry farming promises 
to be an important factor in the building up of that re- 
public, which has a very large amount of arid and semi- 
arid land. The annual precipitation in much of this area 
is fairly liberal, but because of the heat, the loss of soil 
moisture unhindered in its movements, is equally large. 
Long centuries ago the inhabitants of Peru grew crops 
by dry farming methods, and the same is true of Chile 
and other states southward in the continent. 

Very large areas of Australia are now coming to be 
worked on the dry farming plan. Two-thirds of this vast 
area has a rainfall of less than 20 inches, and much of the 
country lies under a tropical sun. In many sections the 
rainfall is less than 10 inches annually. To no one of the 
continents, therefore, are dry farming methods of so much 
importance. The dry farming propaganda is being vig- 
orously pushed in many parts of the country and the 



THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 35 

promise of results that will be greatly significant in the 
future is encouraging. 

The promoters of dry farming. — That dry farming as 
now practised is comparatively recent in its origin will 
be apparent from what has already been said. That it is 
the outcome of the efforts of individuals in various states 
laboring simultaneously and in a te'ntative way has been 
shown. That these efforts all led to the one conclusion 
viz., that the keystone to successful dry farming is the 
proper conservation of soil moisture, has been made clear 
and in consequence no one individual can arrogate to 
himself the honor of having introduced this system by 
which the wilderness and the solitary place are to be 
turned into a garden of productiveness. 

The efforts of those individual workers, however, 
would never in themselves have given dry farming the 
status that it has today. Organized effort was necessary 
to rivet the attention of the world upon the importance 
of the dry farming movement. This came with the or- 
ganization of the dry farming congress. Men who w^ere 
interested in the sale of lands in dry areas are to be 
credited in large measure with the launching of this 
movement which is destined to lead to material results 
such as are without parallel in the world at the present 
time. This is owing to the immensity of the area that 
will be affected by this movement. 

The first dry farming congress was held at Denver, 
Col., Jan. 24-26, 1907; the second at Salt Lake City, 
Utah, Jan. 22-25, 1908, and the third at Cheyenne, Wyo., 
Feb. 23-25, 1909. At this Cheyenne congress foreign 
delegates were in attendance from Canada and the Trans- 
vaal, Australia and Russia and Brazil. It was decided at 
this congress that the time for convening should be 
changed from early winter to the autumn, and in conse- 
quence of this decision, the next congress convened at 
Billings, Mont., in October of the same year. The 



36 DRY IvAND FARMING 

fifth congress was held at Spokane, Wash., in October, 
1910. At the meeting held in Utah, an exhibit of dry- 
land products was made. This feature has been main- 
tained at all the annual meetings of the congress that 
have since been held. The attendance at these meetings 
has been increasingly large, and the interest taken in 
them will be understood from the leading part taken in 
them by the governors of the various states in which 
they have been held. 

The congress is fortunate in its secretary, Mr. John 
T. Burns, whose excellent manag-ement of the affairs of 
the congress has done much to bring it before the various 
nations of the world. The stimulus which this congress 
is giving to the dry farming movement in many lands 
cannot easily be measured. In several of the dry farming 
states, auxiliary branches of the congress have been or- 
ganized. Utah led in these organizations, the first auxil- 
iary having been established in that state in 1907. 

The movement thus inaugurated by the dry farming 
congress has been given much aid by the public press, 
by certain of the railroads, by the United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, and by some of the experiment sta- 
tions. 

The press, and especially the agricultural press, has 
given wide publicity to the work of the dry farming con- 
gress from its first inception. It is now giving much 
publicity to dry farming methods, especially that por- 
tion of it located in the west. The dry farming congress 
has its official organ, and periodicals are now being in- 
troduced devoted entirely to the discussion of dry farm 
problems. 

During recent years certain of the railroads have en- 
couraged demonstration work along their several lines 
in the semi-arid country. This work had for its object: 
(1) to show conclusively that dry land crops could be 
successfully and profitably grown. That this was pos- 



THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 37 

sible was stoutly denied by all or nearly all who were en- 
gaged in ranching in the several dry land states, and 
they based this denial on the ground that they had failed 
in their efforts to grow crops. In taking this stand they 
have only proclaimed to the world and for all time their 
ignorance of the principles that underlie successful dry 
farming. (2) To ascertain which crops could be grown 
the most successfully and profitably, and (3) to demon- 
strate the best methods of growing them. 

The Northern Pacific railroad was one of the first 
to enter this field. In co-operation with the state of Mon- 
tana, it sustained demonstration work in various parts 
of the state from 1906 to 1910. The Rock Island and the 
Milwaukee railroads and also certain lines of the Harri- 
man system have during recent years been giving more 
or less aid to the encouragement of this work. 

The work in this line, however, inaugurated by the 
Great Northern railroad in the spring of 1910, is the 
most extensive work of the kind ever undertaken by any 
one railroad system. Forty-five demonstration stations 
were conducted by this road in 1910, and 42 in 1911, near- 
ly all of them being located along the various lines of 
the road in Montana. In 1911 the work was carried into 
North Dakota. These stations embrace from 6 to 100 
acres, nearly all of them being of the former size. The 
railroad gave the farmer the seed, the crop when grown 
and $10.00 for working each of the 6 acres of his own 
land. The work, however, was to be done according to 
instructions given by a representative of the Great Nor- 
thern road. 

Three men were thus constantly employed during 
the entire growing season. The Northern Pacific railroad 
also established work of this character in southeastern 
North Dakota in the spring of 1911. 

The United States Department of Agriculture has 
shown much if not undue caution in instituting investi- 



38 DRY LAND FARMING 

gations pertaining to the growing of crops in the arid 
and semi-arid west. Because of this, experiments con- 
ducted by individuals in several of the states where dry 
conditions prevail were much in advance of those insti- 
tuted by the department during recent years. This ex- 
treme caution may have been based on the fear that home- 
steaders might thus be encouraged to locate in areas 
where they would find it very difficult to build and main- 
tain homes. About the first work undertaken by the 
department with a view to aid in the development of the 
agriculture of this region was the search in other coun- 
tries for plants that were markedly drought-resistant, 
with a view to their introduction in this area. The Bu- 
reaus of Plant Industry, Chemistry, Soils and Weather 
have also rendered substantial service. It was not un- 
til 1905 that a head was appointed to take charge of 
dry land investigations. An office for this department 
is now maintained under the Bureau of Plant Industry. 
During recent years a large number of stations have 
been established by the department in those areas for 
conducting investigations pertaining to dry land prob- 
lems. Some of these are conducted in co-operation with 
the experiment stations. 

Definite experiments with a view to the study of 
questions pertaining to the agriculture of dry areas in 
the United States were inaugurated by the Colorado 
Legislature. In 1893 it authorized the establishment of 
an experiment station at Cheyenne Wells. This action, 
however, was five years later than the establishment of 
the Canadian station at Indian HeaS in 1888. 

Dry farming experiments by the Utah state station 
were begun in 1901. This state is the pioneer in sys- 
tematic experimental work conducted on an extensive 
scale. Among the other states that have done excellent 
work in the study of dry land questions in an experimen- 



THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 39 

tal way since 1901 are Montana, North Dakota, Wyom- 
ing, Nebraska, Colorado and New Mexico. 

From what has been said it is very evident that no 
man can justly claim to be the originator of dry farming 
as now practised on the American continent. This 
claim has been virtually made for H. W. Campbell, now 
of Lincoln, Neb., and it has received the endorsement of 
an uninformed public both in this country and abroad. 
The facts that bear upon this question show that the 
claim is groundless. It is not only true that the Campbell 
system did not shape the method of dry farming as now 
generally advocated and practised, but it is also true 
that it is essentially based on the said practise and is 
in its main features the outcome of the same, as will 
now be shown. 

The Campbell system as outlined by its author in 
his book "Soil Culture Manual" is, in its essentials, as 
follows: (1) To grow crops successfully in dry years 
it is necessary that water shall be stored in the soil by 
proper tillage. (2) Such tillage includes discing the land 
as soon as the crop has been removed, following with 
the plow sooner or later thereafter, using the subsur- 
face packer after the plow and the harrow after the sub- 
surface packer, and maintaining a dust mulch on summer- 
fallow land. (3) Sowing grain thinly and if too thick 
harrowing some of it out. This practise is founded on the 
fundamental principle that in dry areas it is absolutely 
necessary to retain by tillage as far as this may be prac- 
ticable the moisture that falls, if crops are to be grown 
with success. As has been shown, this principle was rec- 
ognized and acted upon by farmers in Utah, in some in- 
stances at least two decades before the Campbell system 
as now practised was evolved. This system, however, 
laid more stress on discing unplowed land and the sub- 
surface packing of plowed land than had been previously 
accorded to those practises. 



40 DRY LAND FARMING 

The weak points in the Campbell system include the 
following: (1) The insistence on discing land and fol- 
lowing with the plow under all soil conditions. (2) The 
insistence on the use of the subsurface packer after the 
plow, without regard to the character of the soil. (3) 
The absence of any provision for the maintenance or 
renewal of fertility and humus in the soil. Moreover, in 
practise it is difificult to carry out certain of the methods 
recommended, as for instance always discing stubble be- 
fore plowing and plowing summer-fallow in August, 
because of the season at which such work must be done. 

The Campbell system is not what it was at the 
first. It began by sowing grain in rows in the early 
spring, far enough apart to admit of cultivation. This 
was abandoned because it was too costly. Even as re- 
cently as 1896 the farm paper which Mr. Campbell edited 
makes no mention of summer tillage when giving what is 
avowedly a full statement of the system. He admits 
that it was not until 1891 that he became positive that 
he could secure good crops under droughty conditions, 
and that the first victory of the Campbell method was 
won in 1894 in Brown county in South Dakota, when 142 
bushels of potatoes per acre were grown in a very dry 
year. It should also be borne in mind that Mr. Campbell 
conducted his experiments near the eastern border of the 
semi-arid belt, where the more severe drought conditions 
do not prevail to the same extent as they do farther 
to the west. It is true, nevertheless, that Mr. Campbell 
has done much to rivet the attention of the public on the 
important place that must be assigned to dry farming 
in the agriculture of the future, by the persistency of his 
advocacy. For this he should be given the full measure 
of the credit which is his due. 

The future of dry farming. — From what has been said 
it will be apparent that dry farming in the future will 
hold a wide place in the world's industries. It will be 



THE ORIGIN AND HISTORY OF DRY FARMING 41 

the outstanding material interest of the immediate future. 
Although the exact facts are not fully attainable at the 
present time, it seems correct to say that more than half 
of the tillable area in the world can be made to produce 
crops only by resorting to dry land methods of cultiva- 
tion. In the contemplation of this fact will be seen the 
momentous significance of a proper understanding of the 
principles of tillage which alone, when properly applied, 
will enable those who apply them to obtain maximum re- 
sults from the lands which they till. 

It is unfortunate that the principles which underlie 
successful tillage are so little understood by so large a 
percentage of those who live in dry areas, and that they 
are so seldom applied in a hearty and thorough fashion. 
Many of the newer settlers have come from humid cli- 
mates. It seems preposterous to them, at the outset, that 
they should put so much labor on land in order to in- 
sure a crop, nor do they take kindly to the idea of not 
trying to grow a crop every season. The disposition that 
inheres in the average man to reach out largely in the 
line of acquisition is tempted in dry areas as in few other 
places, by the ease with which large holdings may be ob- 
tained. The further disposition that leads so many to 
gamble, as it were, for large results in the imperfect 
tillage which is given to large areas, oftentimes leads to 
crop failure. It is seldom that the average farmer will 
practise dry farming methods as he ought to, until he 
has felt the stiff jolt which extensive crop failure brings 
to him. Half-way measures -in tilling the soil in dry areas 
will never prove successful save in exceptional seasons. 

Evolution, however, in this as in other things, must 
be gradual. It is comforting to know that it has begun. 
There is satisfaction in the thought that the possibility 
of farming much of the dry area in the west is no longer 
in doubt. Only a few years since, a U. S. Senator from 
one of the dry land states expressed doubt as to whether a 



42 DRY LAND FARMING 

homesteader could successfully start a farm on the dry 
lands of the west. This doubt was expressed at one of 
the meetings of the Trans-Mississippi Dry Farming Con- 
gress. The live stock ranchers were a unit in saying that 
it could not be done. Those doubts have been given their 
answer in the fact that it is being done, and in all the 
semi-arid states. 



CHAPTER III 
THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 

This chapter will consider more particularly the do- 
main for dry farming in the United States and Canada. 
The domain for the same, including" all the continents, 
is very wide. Taking into consideration only the tillable 
portions of the earth's surface, it would seem safe to say 
that more than half the area, if farmed at all, must be 
farmed on the principles that underlie successful dry land 
farming. In the United States and Canada, it is not 
possible to determine with absolute precision at the pres- 
ent time the relative or even the absolute proportion of 
the tillable area that must be farmed, if farmed at all, on 
the methods that lead to success as practised in what are 
usually termed dry land areas. It would be safe to say, 
however, that nearly one-half of the tillable area in the 
United States must be thus farmed, if farmed at all, and 
the same is true of certain areas in western Canada. 
But in portions of western Canada in which trees grow in 
clumps in the depressions, it may be taken for granted 
that the annual precipitation is higher than in areas far- 
ther south, or the trees would not be in evidence. Where- 
ever nature sustains such a vegetation, even in the de- 
pressions, the ability of the soil and climate to grow good 
crops need not be questioned. 

Influences that bear upon dry farming. — In chap- 
ter I these influences are discussed to some extent when 
explaining the causes of aridity (see p. 14). They are 
enlarged upon here. The influences that bear upon dry 
farming include: (1) the amount of the precipitation; (2) 
the time at which the precipitation falls ; (3) the character 
of the evaporation ; (4) the temperature that is normally 
present, and (5) the character of the soil. The fact should 
never be overlooked when sitting in judgment on areas 



44 DRY LAND FARMING 

that may or may not be farmed on the dry farming plan, 
that each of the factors named exercises an important 
influence on production. But it must be conceded, never- 
theless, that the actual amount of the normal precipita- 
tion is the most potent influence in production in dry 
areas. Where the precipitation is below a certain 
amount, dry farming cannot be practised, though all the 
other considerations mentioned should be satisfactorily 
present. 

The precipitation that will grow a good crop of grain 
depends: (1) on the preparation that has been given to 
the land ; (2) on the season at which the precipitation falls 
as well as on the amount of the same ; (3) on the extent 
of the evaporation ; (4) on the temperature, and (5) on the 
soil. Of these influences the preparation that has been 
given to the land is the most important. If moisture 
has not been properly stored in the soil and subsoil, and 
a dry season follows, the favorable influence that may 
be exerted by all the other agencies combined will not 
insure a crop even under semi-arid conditions. Much less 
will these insure the same under arid conditions. It is 
very evident, therefore, that the amount of the precipi- 
tation alone does not determine the capacity of the land 
to grow crops in these areas. 

It is also evident that the amount of precipitation 
that will suffice to grow a crop in one locality may not 
grow the same in another. Without knowing all the at- 
tendant conditions it is not possible to determine the 
amount of precipitation that will suffice to grow a good 
crop. It would seem safe to say, however, that on the 
parallel 45 north latitude a good crop of wheat may be 
grown on an annual precipitation of 6 to 8 inches on care- 
fully summer-fallowed land, providing it has been sum- 
mer-fallowed for one year. On an annual precipitation 
of, say, 12 to 15 inches, good crops of certain kinds of 
grain may be assured on properly summer-fallowed land. 



THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 45 

With an annual rainfall of 15 to 18 inches, it is practic- 
able to get two grain crops in three years. With a rain- 
fall of 20 inches it is practicable to secure good crops 
every year from a properly adjusted rotation, on the 
assumption that a cultivated crop is one of the factors of 
the same. In the southern portions of the dry belt con- 
siderably more precipitation would be called for to secure 
these results, because of the higher evaporation. 

The time at which the precipitation falls has an im- 
portant bearing on the crops that may be grown. In the 
Plains region about 50 per cent, of the precipitation comes 
during the period of greatest growth. This means that 
the adaptation for spring cereals is relatively high. It 
also favors the successful maturing of winter grains 
where these have come through the winter successfully 
In these areas, however, there may be difficulty in start- 
ing winter grains because of the lack of moisture. But 
since in this area the rains almost practically cease with 
July, it is important that the spring crops grown shall 
be of such species and varieties as mature early. In 
much of the Inter-mountain area the precipitation comes 
mainly in the late autumn and early spring months. The 
same is true of much of the Great Basin country. Be- 
cause of this the adaptation is highest for autumn-sown 
grains, as these mature early and before the drought 
and greatest heat of summer is ushered in. They also 
get the full benefit of the winter rains. In areas where 
the highest precipitation occurs in the summer and au- 
tumn months, as in Oklahoma, Texas and New Mexico, it 
will be in order to grow late maturing cereals and such 
crops as corn and the sorghums. 

The influence exercised on crop production by evapo- 
ration is very material. It increases (1) with increase in 
the dryness of the atmosphere ; (2) increase in the sum- 
mer heat; (3) increase in the dryness and velocity of the 
winds, and (4) with decrease in the humidity. It de- 



46 DRY LAND FARMING 

creases (1) with an ascending latitude, and (2) with in- 
crease in the elevation. It is manifest, therefore, that 
the evaporation will be much greater in warm latitudes 
and depressed elevations because of the greater heat, than 
in elevations the opposite, and that it will be much 
greater in areas not tempered with humidity from the 
ocean than in areas so tempered. Where winds are con- 
stant, and the movement of the same is relatively high, 
evaporation will be proportionately increased. Such a 
condition occurs in certain portions of the Great Plains 
area. The influences named, in conjunction with vari- 
ations in the precipitation, increase greatly the diffi- 
culty of formulating definite rules for the tillage of areas 
with practically the same average precipitation. The 
Bureau of Plant Industry found as the result of three 
years test at Dickinson, N. D., ending with 1909, that the 
average annual evaporation from a water surface was 
31.4 inches, whereas from a two years test at Fallon, 
Neb., it was 51 inches. It is very evident, therefore, that 
a certain amount of rainfall at Dickinson will be more 
helpful to growing crops than a similar precipitation at 
Fallon, other things being, generally speaking, equal. 
It has been estimated that where the evaporation is 45 
inches and where the summer rainfall is 18 inches, the 
larger portion of it falling in the summer, about one-half 
of it may be saved to the crops. 

The normal temperature in dry areas greatly influ- 
ences not only the crops that may be grown but the yields 
of the same. The temperature is, of course, influenced 
much by the elevation and by distance from the ocean. 
Naturally, increase in the elevation lowers the mean tem- 
perature, and increasing distance from the ocean results 
in still greater contrast between the degree of the heat 
of the days, as compared with that of the nights. In much 
of the dry area, the nights are relatively cool, and this 
is greatly favorable to increasing plumpness of the grain 



THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 47 

in process of filling. In the higher elevations, and 
especially in proximity to the mountains, summer frosts 
do more or less harm, but the injury that would other- 
wise result is much neutralized by the dryness of the 
atmosphere. Hail also is to be reckoned with, but usu- 
ally the area covered by hailstorms is not very exten- 
sive. Certain quick growing grain crops may be matured 
in the latitude of Denver, Col., at an altitude of fully 
7,000 feet. 

The influence of soils is also marked on production 
and on the relative amounts of rainfall called for to make 
production safe. For the further discussion of this ques- 
tion see chapter IV. From what has been said, it will 
be abundantly apparent that the adaptation of the various 
areas of the semi-arid country for the growing of crops 
cannot by any means be judged of correctly on the basis 
of the amount of the precipitation alone. 

Arid and semi-arid America. — The area comprised as 
arid and semi-arid in the United States is not easily de- 
fined owing to the great variation in the conditions that 
lead to aridity or the opposite in the various states of the 
west. For instance, the rainfall in certain areas of a state 
usually considered arid may be such as to make these 
areas come within the sub-humid class. 'In those por- 
tions of Colorado where the normal annual rainfall runs 
between 15 and 20 inches, is Gunnison county, where an 
annual precipitation of 50 inches is reported. These 
marked variations may be found in all or nearly all of 
the arid and semi-arid states. They are caused in part at 
least by a difiference in the elevation. The cooling of 
the moisture-laden air through expansion as it rises over 
a range of hills or mountains leads to precipitation. This 
explains in part at least why the precipitation is so much 
greater west than east of the Cascades. But this is not 
the sole explanation of the difference in the precipita- 
tion, as marked differences occur in the normal rainfall 



48 DRY LAND FARMING 

of various localities in the Great Plains area in the almost 
entire absence of elevations of any great prominence. 
For instance, the normal precipitation at Chester, Mont., 
would appear to be considerably less than that of areas to 
the east and west. 

Speaking in a general way, it would be correct to 
say that the semi-arid and arid regions of the United' 
States and Canada lie between the meridians of 100 and 
120 west longitude and between the parallels of 51 to 
53 and 30 respectively north latitude. This immense 
area comprises approximately 1,400,000,000 acres. 

The line which bounds the area on the east where 
the rainfall is not more than 20 inches is as follows : It 
begins in the northeastern part of North Dakota, not 
very far distant from the Red river, and bears slightly to 
the southwest until it reaches the Mexican border. This 
line cuts ofif to the westward more than three-fourths 
of North Dakota, about two-thirds of South Dakota, 
about one-third of Nebraska, about one-fourth of Kansas 
and Texas, and a small portion of Oklahoma. The line 
that bounds it on the west runs virtually not far distant 
from the western base of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada 
mountains, except in certain areas of California, where 
it runs still farther to the west. 

The states included in the dry belt in whole or in 
part, are the following: North Dakota, South Dakota, 
Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, New Mexico, Colo- 
rado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Nevada, Arizona, Cali- 
fornia, Oregon and Washington, seventeen in all. East- 
ern North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Kansas, 
Oklahoma and Texas lie within the areas classed as sub- 
humid and humid, and the same is true of the western 
portions of California, Oregon and Washington. In 
parts of Colorado, New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Wyom- 
ing, Washington, Oregon, Nevada and Lower California, 
the annual precipitation is less than 10 inches. In but a 



THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 49 

very small portion of Washington, Oregon and Wyoming 
is the rainfall thus low. In practically all the intervening 
portions of the dry country it runs from 10 to 20 inches. 
The territory in Canada classed as semi-arid includes con- 
siderable areas in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan 
and a limited area in southwestern Manitoba. Canada 
has no land virtually that should be classed as arid. On 
the supposition that the arid and semi-arid area lies be- 
tween the meridians 100 and 120 west longitude, and be- 
tween parallels 53 and 30 north latitude, the width of this 
area is about 1,400 miles from east to west, and the length 
about 1,600 miles from north to south. Within this area 
are 1,436,000,000 acres. There is no means of knowing 
with certainty at the present time the relative proportions 
of this vast area that are untillable, because rough, rocky 
and mountainous, but the estimate would seem low that 
would consider only two-fifths of the entire area tillable. 
Computing on this basis would give practically 573,000,- 
000 acres of land in the dry country that is tillable. On 
the supposition that 73,000,000 acres of this land is in 
Canada, it would still leave 500,000,000 acres for the 
United States. Not more, probably, than 100,000,000 
acres can ever be irrigated. This would leave 400,000,- 
000 acres of tillable land in the semi-arid states of the 
west, which never can be farmed successfully except by 
dry farming methods. When it is further considered 
that nearly all of this land is of surpassing richness, the 
magnitude of the dry land farming question to the United 
States will be at once apparent. The estimate of Widt- 
soe is even more liberal. It places the entire area that 
may be tilled at 600,000,000 acres, of which not to exceed 
5 per cent, will ever be irrigated. 

Divisions of the arid and semi-arid areas. — The arid 
and semi-arid areas may be grouped as follows: (1) the 
Great Plains area; (2) the Inter-mountain region ; (3) the 
Columbia river basin ; (4) the Great Basin, and (5) the 



50 DRY LAND FARMING 

Colorado and Rio Grande river basins. These divisions 
are based chiefly on the drainage features which they pos- 
sess respectively, but each has distinctive features per- 
taining to precipitation, temperature and other weather 
conditions, and, therefore, also to production. 

The Great Plains area includes parts of North Da- 
kota, South Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, Kansas, Wy- 
oming, Colorado, New Mexico, Oklahoma and Texas, 
also considerable areas in southern Alberta and Sas- 
katchewan. This is the largest area by far of dry farming 
land found in the west, under what may be termed ap- 
proximately uniform conditions. The drainage of this 
vast area is into the Saskatchewan, Red and Mississippi 
rivers, which means that it is essentially eastward, and 
it covers an area of not less probably than 450,000 square 
miles, thus embracing about 288,000,000 acres. This is 
the largest area of land found on the American conti- 
nent under practically uniform conditions, and because of 
its extent and the character of its production it is by 
far the most valuable portion of the semi-arid country. 
From Canada to Texas the farmers have been successful 
in this area where they have followed approved dry 
farming methods. It has special adaptation to growing 
wheat and other grain, and in many portions thereof it 
will grow good crops of alfalfa, corn for fodder and to a 
less extent for the grain, also the sorghums and the mil- 
lets. The entire region has shown special adaptation for 
the production of high class cereals. 

The Inter-mountain states include a part of Mon- 
tana, nearly all of Wyoming and Colorado, and part of 
eastern Idaho. As Widtsoe has stated, this region is 
located along the backbone of the Rocky Mountains. 
The farms are located chiefly in the river valleys and on 
the large and undulating table lands at the base of the 
mountains. Dry farming is already well established in 
certain portions of this area but the land brought under 



THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 



51 



cultivation is relatively very small when compared with 
the very large area that will in the near future be made 
to produce crops successfully. In this area small grains, 
alfalfa and many kinds of fruits have succeeded well. 

The Columbia river basin includes a large portion of 
Oregon, a considerable portion of eastern Washington, 
the northern and western part of Idaho, and a part of 
western Montana and southern British Columbia. With- 
in this region is the Inland Empire, covering 150,000 
square miles or not far from 100,000,000 acres. In this 




lilL-ST PiliZE DRY L.^Mj i'ARM EXHllilT. 

Products all Grown on the Farm of Tillman Reuter, Madras County, Oregon. 

Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 



area the chief crop is wheat, but in portions where 
the rainfall is highest fruits have been grown with much 
success. In parts of this area, wheat has been grown 
successfully, where, for many years, the average rainfall 
has not been more than from 10 to 11 inches per annum, 
and without apparent diminution in the yield. It is 
chiefly grown in alternation with summer-fallow, which 
was introduced about 1890. 



53 DRY LAND FARMING 

The Great Basin country includes Nevada and the 
western half of Utah, and a small portion of the states 
of southern Oregon, Idaho and California. The char- 
acteristic feature of this region is that its rivers drain 
into salt lakes or dry sinks. 

Within it are many valleys made up of nearly level 
land. This basin was at one time a great lake which 
drained into the Columbia river. The chief cereal pro- 
duction of this area is wheat, but it will also grow, with 
much success, corn, the sorghums and certain fruits, in- 
cluding grapes. In some parts of this basin dry farming 
has been conducted for 40 to 50 years. In many areas, 
especially in Nevada, the rainfall is even less than 10 
inches per year. According to Hillgard, dry farming has 
been practised more or less since 1878, and Olin states 
that dry farming methods were practised as early as 
1861. 

The Colorado and Rio Grande river basins include 
the western part of New Mexico and Colorado, and the 
southwestern part of Texas. In those basins are consid- 
erable areas that are even now being successfully farmed 
on the dry farming plan. These will doubtless be greatly 
increased in the near future, notwithstanding the dry- 
ness of the climate. The chief of the dry farm products 
grown at the present time are wheat, corn and the sor- 
ghums, broom corn, millet and beans. 

Precipitation in the various states. — Below^ is a state- 
ment (1) of the average annual precipitation in the sev- 
eral states that lie within the arid and semi-arid areas, 
in whole or in part, from all the stations reporting prior 
to 1909, (2) of the maximum and minimum precipitation 
in each, and (3) a reference in a general way to the area 
or areas within each state with an annual rainfall of 20 
inches and over that amount, less than 15 inches and 
between 15 and 20 inches. The information is thus based 
on data furnished in Bulletin No. 188 issued by the 



THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 53 

Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agricul- 
ture in 1910. 

In North Dakota the average annual precipitation is 
17.95 inches, the maximum 27.03 and the minimum 12.3. 
About one-sixth of the area, embracing the eastern and 
especially the southeastern portion of the state, has an 
annual precipitation of 20 inches and above that amount. 
About one-fifth of the area lying in the northwest and 
to a greater extent in the southwest, has a rainfall of 15 
inches and less. The rest of the state has a precipitation 
of 15 to 20 inches. The lowest precipitation is in the 
southwestern counties, where it averages about 13 inches. 

In South Dakota the average annual rainfall is 20.9 
inches, the maximum is 29.7 and the minimum 9.7. Some- 
what more than the eastern third has a rainfall of 20 
inches and upwards, and the same is true of a small area 
in the Black Hills regions in the west. The greater 
portion of the western third is less than 15 inches. A 
somewhat limited area in the central western portion is 
from 15 to 20 inches. 

In Nebraska the average annual precipitation is 
25.79 inches, the maximum 35.8 and the minimum 13.3 
Only in the western third of the state is the rainfall less 
than 20 inches, and in but few counties within that area 
is it less than 30 inches. 

In Kansas the average annual precipitation is 29.05 
inches, the maximum M.5 and the minimum 16.1. Only 
in about one-sixth of the western portion is the rainfall 
less than 20 inches. The increase is gradual and con- 
tinuous to the east. The southeastern part of the state 
has a precipitation of more than 40 inches annually. 

In Oklahoma the average annual precipitation is 
34.75 inches, the maximum 45.3 and the minimum 15.5. 
Only in the three most westerly counties is it less than 
20 inches. In the eastern portion of the state and com- 



54 DRY LAND FARMING 

prising more than one-third of the whole, it is more than 
40 inches. 

In Texas the average annual precipitation is 31.65 
inches, the maximum 52.1 and the mimimum 9.8. 
Approximately four-fifths of Texas has an annual pre- 
cipitation of 30 inches and over, and much of the far 
eastern portion has more than 40 inches. The exception 
comprises two or three tiers of counties on the western 
side. Only in about six counties in the extreme south- 
west is it less than 15 inches. 

In New Mexico the average annual precipitation is 
13.38 inches, the maximum 25.1 and the mimimum 5.1. In 
nearly all the western half of the state the rainfall is 
less than 10 inches, and in the larger portion of the east- 
ern half it is more than 15 inches. In some areas in the 
central western portion the precipitation is from 12 to 
15 inches, but in the extreme northwest and southwest 
the precipitation is very light. Several areas in the 
west are really arid, and this aridity is aggravated by the 
large evaporation. 

In Colorado the average annual precipitation is 15.91 
inches, the maximum 50.5 and the minimum 6.Q. Only 
in one county, Gunnison, is the precipitation 50 inches, 
and curiously enough, in another part of the same coun- 
ty, it is only 9 inches. The second highest precipitation 
recorded is 28.7. In Colorado the areas of high and me- 
dium precipitation are very irregularly distributed, owing 
in some degree doubtless to the eccentricities of direction 
in the mountain ranges. Generally the precipitation over 
15 inches is found in the north central and eastern coun- 
ties, between 10 and 15 inches in certain of the central 
counties, extending from the southwest to the northwest, 
and under 10 inches in several of the southwestern coun- 
ties, a few of which may be classed as arid. 

In Wyoming the average annual precipitation is 
13.53 inches, the maximum 18.8 and the minimum 5.8. 



THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 55 

The southeastern and northwestern portions have the 
highest precipitation, and Bighorn county in the north 
and Sweetwater in the south the lowest. Only in por- 
tions of these counties can the country be classed as arid. 

In Montana the average annual precipitation is 15.39 
inches, the maximum 24.1 and the minimum 11.1. Only 
in a small portion of the northwest area is the rainfall 
20 inches and over, and only along the Milk and Bighorn 
rivers and the country contiguous thereto is it less than 
15 inches, except in a small area running diagonally 
across the central portion of the state. In none of the 
states of the semi-arid west are the conditions so uni- 
form with reference to precipitation. Montana has prac- 
tically no arid land except what is made so by the 
presence 'of alkali. 

In Idaho the average annual precipitation is 17.52 
inches, the maximum 37.6 and the minimum 9.3. The 
precipitation is very unevenly distributed. In the north- 
erly counties of Bonner, Kootenai, Shoshone, Latah, near- 
ly all of Nez Perce and part of Idaho, it runs from 20 to 30 
inches. South of these counties, it is, generally speaking, 
15 inches and less, save in the counties of AVashington 
and Boise in the central western area. In the south- 
eastern and southwestern counties, it runs from 9 to 15 
inches. 

In Utah the average annual precipitation is 12.66 
inches, the maximum 23.1 and the minimum 4.1. The 
north central portion has a precipitation of 15 to more 
than 20 inches ; east and west from this area, also in the 
south central portion, it is, generally speaking, from 15 
to 10 inches. The east and west third have each ap- 
proximately less than 10 inches. A very considerable 
portion of Utah is arid. 

In Nevada the average annual precipitation is 9.2 
inches, the maximum 26.1 and the minimum 4.3. Only 
in a very small area in the extreme western portion of 



56 DRY LAND FARMING 

the state does the rainfall exceed 15 inches. In a much 
larger area in the central part of the same it runs from 
8 to 12 inches. In practically all the other portions of 
the state it is less than 10 inches. In not less than half 
the entire area the conditions would seem to indicate 
aridity in the absence of irrigating waters. This state 
has the lowest average precipitation of all the states in 
the Union. 

In Arizona the average annual precipitation is 12.15 
inches, the maximum 24.9 and the minimum 3.1, viz., at 
Yuma. In portions of say five counties in the central 
part of the state, the rainfall is 15 inches and upwards. 
In the southwestern part of the state it is 5 inches and 
less. In nearly all the other portions it is from 5 to 15 
inches. Arizona has a large area of arid land. 

In California the average annual precipitation is 21 
inches, the maximum 88.8 and the minimum 1.1, viz., at 
Ogilby, in Imperial county. If a line were run straight 
across the state so as to cut ofif north from it about two- 
fifths of the same, with the exception of a very small por- 
tion in the extreme northeastern corner, that portion 
would represent in nearly all instances an exceedingly 
heavy rainfall. Nearly half of the remaining area ly- 
ing along the Pacific has a rainfall of 10 to 20 inches, and 
the other portion from 10 inches down to virually no 
rainfall. A very considerable portion of southern Cali- 
fornia is arid. 

In Oregon the average annual precipitation is 42.8 
inches, the maximum 117.0 and the minimum 8.6. West 
of the Cascades the precipitation is very heavy. In the 
northeastern counties, it is 15 inches and upwards. In all 
other portions it is below 15 inches, and in nearly all 
parts more than 10. ' 

In Washington the average annual precipitation is 
36.15 inches, the maximum 127 and the minimum G.5. 
Westward from a line running down through the center 



THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 57 

of the state, the precipitation is more than 20 inches and 
also in a narrow strip covering all the eastern border. In 
some of the south central counties it is less than 10 inches 
and in other parts of the state from 10 to 20 inches. 

In southern Alberta, southern Saskatchewan and 
southwestern Manitoba, the precipitation is not far dif- 
ferent from the same in the states of Dakota and Mon- 
tana, which border on them, that is, it runs from about 
12 to 18 inches. One or two degrees north from the 
boundary it increases, and the increase is virtually as the 
latitude rises. Evidence of such increase is seen in the 
increase of tree growth. 

The season of precipitation. — The season at which 
the precipitation falls greatly influences the character of 
the production. When the bulk of the rain falls in the 
winter, autumn-sown crops can be grown with the best 
success, since they get virtually the full benefit of the 
precipitation, and they mature before the driest portion of 
the year. When it falls in the spring months, spring 
cereals may be more successfully grown. When it falls in 
the summer months, the problem becomes more compli- 
cated. 

In the Great Plains area the bulk of the precipitation 
comes in the growing season ; that is, in the months of 
April, May, June and July. This so far is greatly 
in favor of the growing crops, but the loss from evapora- 
tion is greater than when much of the rain comes in the 
winter. In some areas nearly half the precipitation 
conies in June and July. In New Mexico and the dry 
portions of Oklahama and Texas, the heaviest pre- 
cipitation occurs in July and August. 

In the Inter-mountain states the precipitation is also 
the heaviest in the spring months, but it is more evenly 
distributed throughout the year, especially in the west- 
ern portions of the same. This so far is favorable to the 
production of both winter and spring crops. 



58 DRY LAND FARMING 

In the Columbia river basin the rain comes chiefly 
in the first five months of the year, and the three closing 
months of the same. During the intervening months the 
precipitation is very low or entirely absent, which is so 
far favorable to the harvesting of the crop. 

In the states of the Great Basin, the larger portion 
of the precipitation falls in November, December, Janu- 
ary, February, March and April. These areas therefore 
are mainly adapted to the growing of winter cereals, and 
fruits. The months of July, August and September are 
practically rainless. 

In the Colorado and the Rio Grande river basins 
nearly all the precipitation comes in the months of July, 
August and September. The precipitation is very light 
during the first half of the year. The seasonal rainfall in 
the dry areas of the several states included as arid and 
semi-arid is in outline as follows : In North Dakota, 
Nebraska, Kansas and also the greater portion of Mon- 
tana, the larger portion of the rain falls in April, May, 
June, July and August. The heaviest precipitation by 
far occurs in June and July. In Oklahoma and Texas, 
the precipitation comes chiefly in the spring and summer 
months, being greatest in midsummer. In New Mexico 
the bulk of the rain falls in July, August and September. 
In Colorado and Wyoming, the bulk of the precipitation 
comes in the spring and summer months, much the larger 
amount falling in the spring months. In Idaho, Utah, 
Nevada, California, Oregon and Washington, the precipi- 
tation occurs chiefly in the late autumn and winter 
months, and to some extent in the spring months. In 
Arizona the rainfall is very light in the winter months, 
almost entirely absent in the spring months, quite heavy 
in July and August and light during the rest of the year. 
In the dry areas of Canada, much the largest precipitation 
comes in April, May, June and July. 



THE DOMAIN FOR DRY FARMING 59 

Other weather condition in dry areas. — In addition 
to the amount of the precipitation and the time at which 
it falls, other weather conditions that merit attention 
include: (1) the manner of the precipitation; (2) the 
nature of the temperature, and (3) the character of the 
winds. 

The value of the precipitation is largely dependent 
on the way in which it falls. It renders far greater 
service to agriculture when it falls gently and for a 
prolonged period than when it comes as a downpour. 
Falling thus, much of it is lost to the soil. Rain is said 
to be torrential when it falls at the rate of an inch or 
more per hour. When it falls thus the larger portion of 
it may be lost even on summer-fallowed land. To lessen 
such loss, the ground is left more or less rough, and it is 
supplied with vegetable matter, as for instance the straw 
of headed grain plowed in. When rain falls in the winter 
and early spring, it is seldom torrential. When it falls 
in the summer, it is more likely to be so. The Great 
Basin is more subject to this form of precipitation than 
the other areas of the dry country. 

More of the precipitation comes as snow in northern 
areas and on high elevations, the highest precipitation 
falling on the elevations. Even on the northern areas 
of the Great Plains country the snowfall is not heavy. 
The benefit which it brings to the soil is largely dependent 
on the degree of the frost and on how the snow is 
removed. Little frost in the soil and slow melting may 
result in saving to the soil nearly all the resultant 
moisture. When conditions the opposite are present, 
the greater portion may be lost. 

The worst form in which the precipitation can come 
is in the form of hail. The Great Plains area is most 
subject to these visitations. In some instances hail storms 
are very destructive. 



60 DRY LAND FARMING 

The temperature in the arid and semi-arid regions 
is seldom very extreme. Except in southwestern 
Manitoba, Southern Saskatchewan and the western 
Dakotas, and on very high elevations, the winter weather 
is not severe. Even in much of the Great Plains country 
live stock, especially horses and cattle, can graze much of 
the winter. West from the Rocky Mountains, frost 
enters the ground only for a short distance and not for 
a prolonged period, and in southern areas the ground 
does not freeze. Only in the south and southwest is the 
summer heat subtropical, and even in these areas the 
nights are cool, as they are everywhere in the dry area. 

Other peculiarities of climate include the following: 
(1) an atmosphere that is dry, rarified, pure, and very 
wholesome, as shown in the healthfulness of live stock 
and the comparative freedom from pulmonary disease in 
the human family; (2) sunshine during more than 60 per 
cent, of the time between sunrise and sunset; (3) little or 
no liability to sunstroke ; (4) almost entire exemption 
from prolonged periods of dreary, drizzling rain. 

The frequency and the constancy with which wind 
currents blow, especially in the level stretches of the 
Great Plains area, is one of the unpleasant features of 
farm life in those areas, but even in these the stiff wind 
currents are largely confined to the winter and spring. 
They are but little present in other portions of the dry 
area. The summers are usually pleasant in the greater 
portion of the dry area and the autumns are simply de- 
lightful. 

Other peculiarities of the winds include: (1) blizzard 
conditions, though infrequent in the eastern part of the 
Great Plains country ; (2) winds warm enough in the 
same area to injure the crops more or less, though less 
so now than formerly, since so much of the ground is 
being clothed with growing plants ; (3) the almost com- 
plete absence of cyclones and tornadoes. 



CHAPTER IV 
SOILS IN DRY AREAS 

The discussion of soils in dry areas will be essentially 
popular in kind. The attempt will not be made to classify 
these soils on what may be termed a strictly scientific 
basis. They will be discussed on the basis of the popular 
conception of their leading characteristics. Hillgard 
suggests the following classifications: (1) soils very 
sandy; (2) ordinary sandy soils; (3) sandy loams; (4) 
clay soils, and (5) heavy clay soils. The first of these 
has from 0.5 to 3 per cent, of clay ; the second 3.0 to 10.0 ; 
the third 10 to 15 and the fourth 15 to 35. The present 
discussion will regard them as: (1) clay; (2) sandy; (3) 
silt ; (4) volcanic ash ; (5) gumbo, and (6) alkali. It will 
be preceded by the consideration of some of the 
characteristics peculiar to western soils and subsoils 
and followed by the discussion of natural production as 
an index of soils. 

Some characteristics of western soils. — The soils in 
dry areas frequently differ from those in humid areas : (1) 
in color; (2) in their mineral constituents; (3) in the 
supply of organic matter, and (4) in their moisture- 
holding power. In other respects they may be similar 
to the latter, as in their physical constituents. 

The average soil of the Mississippi valley is dark in 
its color. This is essentially the outcome of the large 
amount of organic matter which it contains in one or 
the other of its forms. One who is familar only with 
such soils, looks suspiciously on those of the semi-arid 
west. He is much prone to conclude that they are lack- 
ing in fertility and that they are also difficult to till. 
These conclusions are far from correct. These soils, which 
are usually brown in color, with variations, of course, that 
are lighter and darker, are much richer in the essential 



62 DRY LAND FARMING 

elements of plant food, especially those that are mineral 
in character, than the soils of humid areas, and in many 
instances it is easier to maintain them in proper condition 
as to tilth after they have been broken. The sparse char- 
acter of the vegetation that frequently grows on them in 
a state of nature still further enhances the contempt 
which many persons from humid regions cherish for the 
soils of the semi-arid country when they first see them. 
Soils in dry areas are much richer in soluble salts, 
alkalies and mineral plant food than the soils of humid 
areas. They have all the minerals contained in the rocks 
from which they come, and of soluble salts there may 
be even an accumulation. They have not been washed 
out as in humid areas. The soluble silica and alumina 
which indicate the availability of these soils are about 
2^ times greater in the former and about 4 times greater 
in the latter than in the soils of humid climates. Soda 
and magnesia, which up to a certain limit stimulate plant 
growth, are also plentiful. Where the accumulation of 
these is excessive, vegetation partly or wholly disappears. 
Phosphate, potash and lime are also more abundant in 
dry than in humid soils. It has been claimed that the 
phosphate is from 1 to 2 times greater on the average, 
that potash is more than 3 times greater, and that lime 
is frequently from 10 to 12 times greater. It is fortunate 
that so much lime is present in semi-arid soils. Among 
the benefits resulting from its presence are the follow- 
ing: (1) It aids in the quick conversion of organic matter 
into humus, and this in many instances represents the 
main portion of the nitrogen content of the soil. (2) In 
so doing it encourages the presence and action of bac- 
terial life, which is an important factor in maintaining 
and developing soil fertility. (3) It aids in liberating 
and rendering more available the phosphoric acid and 
potash in the soil through the chemical changes which it 
brings about. (4) It tends to prevent acidity in soils 



SOILS IN DRY AREAS 63 

where much organic matter is buried in the same, a condi- 
tion that is often seriously detrimental to plant growth 
in humid climates. In the semi-arid belt the amount of 
lime present is relatively very large before it proves in- 
jurious. In many humid climates the application of lime 
may in many instances be necessary in order to insure 
good returns. It is seldom necessary to add lime thus to 
semi-arid soils. Western soils are comparatively low in 
humus. For the reasons, see p. 413. 

Because of this it is a matter of prime importance 
that the humus supply in these shall be increased if 
maximum production is to be obtained from them. For 
some of the w^ays in which this may be brought about 
see p. 420. The moisture-holding power of much of the 
soil in the semi-arid country is very marked. This fol- 
lows from the fact: (1) that while it is sufificiently por- 
ous it is not unduly loose, a condition arising from the 
character of the soil grains which compose it ; (2) that 
it is possessed of sufficient firmness, without that undue 
consolidation which is a barrier to the penetration of 
moisture; (3) that it is close grained, but not run to- 
gether and so adhesive that it cannot be readily 
penetrated by the roots of plants. This moisture-holding 
power is increased by proper cultivation (see chapter 
VIII) and increasing the supply of humus in the soil. 

The following are among the essential characteristics 
of a good dry land soil: (1) It must be easy of tillage. 
Such will be its condition when the sand and clay con- 
stituents are properly blended. Western soils have 
usually enough sand in them to make them easy of 
tillage when they are sufficiently moist. They also 
excel in flocculation, that is the looseness or fineness of 
the particles. (2) It must be easily penetrated by 
moisture when subjected to the processes of tillage. 
Many soils that are so firm as to resist the easy penetra- 
tion of water when not yet broken are easily penetrated 



64 DRY LAND FARMING 

by the same when tilled, a result of the structure of the 
soil grains as neither too coarse nor too fine. Some 
soils are so fine that through impaction they resist the 
easy penetration of water. Such are clays of fine texture. 
Other soils may be so open that they lose moisture by 
leaching almost as fast as it comes to them. Such are 
coarse sands, but these are not very prevalent. (3) It must 
be able to retain moisture. This will follow when the 
soil grains are neither too large nor too small, too ad- 
hesive nor too much filled with air spaces. This condi- 
tion is best found in sandy loam soils well supplied with 
humus. The deeper that the soil possess^ed of these prop- 
erties is, the more moisture will it contain. Such a soil 
and subsoil will readily store a goodly supply of moisture 
for further use, and it will also furnish ample feeding- 
ground for the roots of plants. (4) It should not have in 
excess those elements that lead to a gumbo or an alkali 
condition (see p. 73). Such soils are very hard to till 
owing to the difficulty of keeping them in a proper me- 
chanical condition. (5) They should not be so light and 
fine as to lift with the wind. Such a condition would add 
greatly to the difficulty of cultivating and cropping such 
soils in dry areas. (6) They should not wash readily 
when rainfall is abundant. This is one of the weak 
characteristics of many western soils. The particles are 
so light and so little adhesive that they are easily held 
in solution and hence are easily carried away. This is 
often true of soils that are productive. This tendency 
may be lessened in various ways, but more especially by 
adding humus to the soil. (7) It should be rich in plant 
food not only in the tillable portion but in the subsoil. 
This characteristic is usually present in a marked degree, 
not only in western soils but also in the subsoils that un- 
derlie them. 

Characteristics of subsoil. — In dry areas the phys- 
ical constituents of soil and subsoil are frequently much 



SOILS IN DRY AREAS 65 

alike. The same is true of their chemical constituents. 
The surface soils have more humus in them and more 
of the mineral plant food is in an available form. But 
the difference in these respects is oftentimes not very 
marked. That it so is very fortunate, as deep storage is 
thus made for moisture and much opportunity is given 
for that soil moisture movement which carries plant food 
in solution up to the surface soil. It also, furnishes 
deep feeding ground for the roots of plants. 

Should the subsoil be dense clay, the downward 
movement of water would be hindered. Should it be 
hard-pan it would be more effectively hindered. Should 
it be coarse sand or gravel, the upward movement would 
be entirely cut off, or virtually so. But when the subsoil 
is much like the surface soil, none of these evils follow. 
The most objectionable subsoils in dry areas include the 
following: (1) soils that are underlaid with hard-pan 
that is not distant from the surface ; (2) those that have 
gravel seams not far below the surface or that are under- 
laid with sand coarse in character, and with but little 
clay interspersed between the soil grains ; (3) subsoils 
that are so compact that they are not easy of penetration 
by air or by the roots of plants, and (4) subsoils that are 
saturated frequently with seepage water that rises to the 
surface. 

A hard-pan condition is usually brought about by the 
action of lime, which is so abundant in the soil of semi- 
arid areas, and water. Water carries down the lime in 
solution as far as it goes, but, owing to the light precipi- 
tation and the dry and hard character of the subsoil, it 
does not go very far, and it goes down to about the same 
distance from year to year. When the lowest limit of 
water penetration is reached, it combines with other soil 
ingredients and forms a layer of calcareous material so 
dense and hard that it cannot be penetrated easily by 
the roots of plants. Even where but little lime is pres- 



66 • DRY LAND FARMING 

ent, clayey particles are worked down, so as to aid in 
forming so firm an under-soil that the roots of plants 
may not easily penetrate it. Such a condition of the 
subsoil may frequently be removed by tillage that is 
deep and judiciously given. Such tillage facilitates the 
downward movement of water to an extent that tends, 
to break up the hard-pan even at distances far below the 
surface soil. 

When a gravel seam has been deposited not far dis- 
tant from the surface, it facilitates the downward move- 
ment of water in the soil and cuts ofY the upward move- 
ment of the same, on the principle known as capillarity. 
In dry areas such a condition is greatly harmful to vege- 
tation. If the gravel seam is of great depth, the harmful 
influence referred to is intensified, and if the subsoil con- 
sists almost entirely of coarse sand grains, similarly ad- 
verse influences will follow. It may be impossible in 
some instances to obtain satisfactory production from 
soils thus underlaid, but should the sand or gravel be 
interspersed with clay particles, these harmful results 
will be reduced proportionately to the extent to which the 
clay particles are present. 

In some instances fine clay particles are carried down 
from the surface and left to mingle with the substances 
composing the subsoils so as to form a mass that is not 
easily penetrated by the roots of plants. Opening up the 
surface soil so as to admit more readily the descent of 
water will usually help this condition, and it may be 
still further aided by the decay of deep rooted plants, as 
those of alfalfa, which to a greater or lesser extent may 
have penetrated these soils. 

In some instances, especially in the soils adjacent to 
higher lands, seepage waters come down from the 
former and to such an extent as to rise to the surface 
at certain seasons of the year. These may exclude the 
air from both soil and subsoil to such an extent as to 



SOILS IN DRY AREAS 67 

prevent growth in the higher forms of vegetation and in 
some instances any form of the same. In soils thus 
saturated, oxygen, so essential to germination and vig- 
orous growth, is in a great measure excluded. In the ab- 
sence of this element of the air, microscopic organisms 
cannot carry on their beneficent work, the decay of 
plant food is proportionally retarded and the formation 
of nitrates is proportionately hindered. Moreover, when 
the seepage waters contain alkali substances, these condi- 
tions are intensified, and oftentimes to the extent of ex- 
cluding all kinds of vegetation. Such a condition can- 
not be remedied until drainage has been effected that 
will promptly carry away the ingredients that are 
harmful. '* i ^'i^ll 

Clay loam soils. — These may be defined as soils that 
contain approximately from 15 to 20 per cent, of clay. 
They differ from clay soils in the less percentage of the 
clay which they possess, and from sandy loams in having 
a lower percentage of sand. They have also less clay 
than soils that are classed simply as loams. They are 
relatively high in their percentage of humus. 

It would seem correct to say that clay loam soils pre- 
vail to a greater extent on the grass-covered bench lands 
than any other class of soils. This means that they are 
the principal soils found on the benches of the Plains 
country. The soils that grow sage brush are also fre- 
quently of this type. They are also found interspersed 
to a considerable extent in the Inter-mountain region, 
and to some extent in the Great Basin. 

The superiority of clay loam soils lies first in the 
ease with which they may be tilled, second in their mois- 
ture-holding power, and third in their richness in the 
elements of plant food. It would not be correct to say 
that they are the easiest tilled soils in semi-arid areas, 
but they are relatively easy of tillage, because of the 
happy blending of the clay and sand particles, more 



68 DRY LAND FARMING 

especially when they are properly supplied with humus. 
The moisture-holding power of course increases with the 
humus supply, other things being equal. The richness 
which these soils usually possess gives them great wear- 
ing power. It is also retentive of gases and soluble plant 
foods. 

Heavy compact clays are undesirable. They are 
slow to absorb water and quick to lose it by evapora- 
tion, because of the readiness with which they impact 
and form openings in the surface which allow moisture 
to escape. Stifif clays are composed of the finest par- 
ticles of the soil, in some instances five hundred times 
finer than sand grains. They are so fine that they do 
not settle readily when held in solution. If these soils 
are tilled when wet they become so adhesive as to be 
almost unworkable on drying. Such a condition will 
preclude successful production in dry weather. But the 
mission of clay particles when mixed with coarser soil 
particles is most beneficent, since it increases their rich- 
ness and also their moisture-holding power. 

Sandy loam soils. — In dry areas sandy loam soils 
are such as are composed of sand particles intermingled 
with clay to the extent of 10 to 15 per cent, of clay. The 
clay content in them is from two to three times as much 
as the clay content in sandy soils. In some areas 
sandy soils have come from sand-bearing rocks which, 
when decomposed, are not capable of furnishing clay, 
hence the low fertility of these. But this is not usually 
true of sandy soils in dry areas, as in arid regions ex- 
perience has shown that these soils are as productive 
as other good soils when sufficiently supplied with wa- 
ter. This holds good even with arid soils that are desert 
in the absence of irrigating waters. The sand and silt 
particles in these are capable on further reduction of 
yielding clay. The clay particles are greatly helpful in 
lessening the spaces between the soil grains. Many of 



SOILS IN DRY AREAS 69 

these particles may adhere to one grain, and in so far 
as they do they lessen the tendency to leaching. 

Sandy loam soils and also sandy soils cover much of 
the surface of the semi-arid areas. .In the eastern portion 
of this area these are usually sectional, and in some in- 
stances the silt particles in them are so light that they 
lift more or less with the wind. In the Inter-mountain 
region these areas are more pronounced. In some parts 
of the valley of the Columbia they cover wide areas, 
and the same is more or less true of the Big Basin coun- 
try. In many instances sandy soils maintain but little 
growth while yet untilled, hence oftentimes they have 
a barren aspect. 

In dry areas sandy loam soils are among the best, 
whether viewed from the standpoint of production or 
from that of tillage. These soils encrust and compact 
less readily than other soils and they do not lose water 
so readily by evaporation. They may be tilled at al- 
most any season of the year not locked with frost. They 
warm more quickly in the spring, and are therefore more 
favorable to early growth. Their value, however, is 
much influenced by the degree of the clay which they 
possess. When too lacking in clay or silt particles, they 
become leachy. 

Silt soils. — Silt soils are composed of soil grains that 
have been deposited mainly through the action of wa- 
ter. The particles of which they are composed are usu- 
ally small and fine, much smaller and finer than the 
average sand particles and larger than the particles of 
clay soils. They are of varying degrees of fineness, de- 
pendent on the extent of the reduction of the sand par- 
ticles which compose them. In some instances they are 
possessed of much uniformity in texture, and this may 
extend to a great depth. In other instances they are in- 
termixed with gravel more or less coarse and they are 
not infrequently underlaid with a subsoil of coarse gravel 



70 DRY LAND FARMING 

which may come up near to the surface. In yet other 
instances these soils are so impregnated with fine clay 
particles that they lose much of their silty character and 
assume more the character of a clay soil. If alkali is 
present these soils may assume a gumbo character. True 
silt soils are relatively rich in the elements of plant food 
and are very easily tilled, but they frequently lose mois- 
ture easily by leaching, and they are much liable to wash. 

Silty soils, sometimes called alluvial soils, are found 
to a much greater extent in the valleys that line the 
streams than elsewhere. These valleys in western areas 
are usually relatively large, hence the area embraced as 
silt is quite considerable. These soils are also found in 
areas of considerable size that were at one time the 
beds of ancient lakes. 

The relative value of silt soils depends largely on 
their composition. True silt soils that are also deep 
and uniform in their composition are usually very rich. 
This may also be true of soils that are less uniform in 
composition and texture. As a rule they are also easily 
tilled. But they, in very many instances, allow water 
to pass down through them so easily that crops grown 
on them in dry areas in the absence of irrigating waters 
are much liable to be injured by drought. The author 
has found it much more difficult to grow good crops on 
these soils in dry years than on the average bench land 
soil. When these soils were underlaid by gravel, even 
some considerable distance below the surface, the loss 
of moisture was increased. When the gravel came up 
quite close to the surface good crops could not be ob- 
tained, even in seasons that were reasonably moist, in 
the absence of irrigation. When the gravels were mixed 
with silt, the results were much less harmful, just as the 
gravel subsoils on bench lands that come up near the 
surface are much less harmful when they are mixed with 
a goodly sprinkling of clay. The summer temperature 



SOILS IN DRY AREAS 71 

is also considerably higher in those river basins than on 
the benches and the rainfall is usually somewhat less. 
These conditions add to the difficulty of getting good 
crops from such soils in the absence of irrigation. 

Volcanic ash soils. — Volcanic ash soils, as the name 
implies, are composed of very fine particles resembling 
ashes in their fineness and in the ease with which they 
may be dissolved and carried away by the action of the 
water. They owe their existence to the action of vol- 
canoes in eruption in primeval centuries. The particles 
which compose them are very fine, finer than the par- 
ticles found in silt soils. These, more than any other 
soils found in the west, are flocculated in character, which 
means that the exceedingly fine particles which compose 
them are gathered together into little flocks, as it were, 
through the action of lime, which tends to bind them 
together. Were it not for this binding process, plants 
would be unable to live in the soil. Organic matter 
also helps these soils by keeping asunder the particles 
of the same. 

These soils cover considerable areas of the far west- 
ern states, especially of the Inter-mountain regions. 
They are found not only in the valleys, but also on the 
higher elevations. In many instances they are found 
without intermixture and of much depth. In other in- 
stances they are more or less mixed with the substances 
which tend much to modify their character. 

Volcanic ash soils are exceedingly high in the ele- 
ments of plant food, especially in the mineral elements 
of the same. They have great wearing power, and as a 
result under fair treatment will grow many successive 
crops without showing any indications of a waning fer- 
tility. They are also easily tilled. They do not bake 
readily in the sense in which hard clay soils bake, but 
they do incrust on the surface more or less after rain, 
as nearly all soils do that are low in organic matter. 



72 DRY LAND FARMING 

This is the great lack of volcanic ash soils, and it fur- 
nishes one explanation of the ease with which they are 
gullied and carried away by the action of water. The 
adaptation of these soils to a great variety of produc- 
tion when sufficently supplied with water is simply mar- 
velous. 

Gumbo soils. — Gumbo soils are soils that are pos- 
sessed of enough of the elements of alkali (see p. 73) to 
make them adhesive, and yet these elements are not 
sufficiently adhesive to make tillage impracticable, al- 
though it may be and is usually difficult. These soils 
may contain much clay. They usually do, but they may 
also contain some sand. They are so adhesive that when 
dry it is exceedingly difficult to plow them. They turn 
up in great chunks which it is impossible to pulverize 
until they are softened by rain, which acts on them 
much as it does on unslaked lime. If worked when wet 
they adhere to the implements of tillage to such an ex- 
tent as to make tillage virtually impracticable. In order 
to till them, advantage must be taken of those periods 
when moisture is present in that degree which makes til- 
lage practicable, and when it is not present in that degree 
which will result in the baking of the land after it has 
been worked. This narrows very considerably the sea- 
son of the year during which gumbo lands may be suc- 
cessfully tilled. The highways in areas where gumbo 
soils prevail are almost impassible in time of wet 
weather. Owing to the adhesive character of these soils 
when wet it is almost impossible to drive a vehicle along 
the highway because of the accumulation of plastic soil 
which adheres to the wheels. 

Gumbo soils are not generally present in extensive 
areas in the dry west. They are more commonly met 
with in river basins and in depressions on the higher 
lands, oftentimes they are found in spots of more or less 
size in areas where the soil is easy of tillage. That they 



SOILS IN DRY AREAS 73 

are found to a greater extent in river basins than in 
other areas is fortunate, since it makes it possible to 
run irrigating waters over them in many instances in 
a way that will render great service in their tillage. But 
on other land such aid is, of course, impossible. 

Gumbo soils are rich. They are generally speaking 
unusually rich, hence their power to wear is unusually 
good. If brought into a proper mechanical condition, 
they produce enormous crops when the conditions are 
all favorable. But frecfuently the conditions are not 
favorable. The moisture in the spring may retard tillage 
at the right season. The lack of moisture in the autumn 
may render tillage impossible. It may also hinder the 
sprouting of grain sown at that season. Under nearly 
all circumstances the fine pulverization of the land is 
difficult. 

Experience in handling these lands has shown that 
when they are judiciously worked and cropped they be- 
come more tractable, so to speak. Especially is this 
true when coarse farmyard manure is buried in these 
soils or when green crops grown on them have been 
plowed under. When the necessity is imperative for 
working these soils, the aim should be to grow on them 
alfalfa as far as this may be practicable. In moist sea- 
sons this crop succeeds well on them, but in dry seasons 
it will, of course, grow less well. The roots of the alfalfa 
tend much to improve the physical condition of these 
soils when they are broken up. 

Alkali soils. — Alkali soils are soils in which the 
solution of certain soluble salts is so strong that plants 
that may germinate on them cannot take up the mois- 
ture in the soil, insomuch that though they should germi- 
nate they soon perish through lack of moisture. It is 
of two kinds, known as white and black alkali respect- 
ively. White alkali is largely due to an accumulation of 
common salt, glauber salt and epsom salt. These give 



74 DRY LAND FARMING 

it the white color which characterizes it. It is a mix- 
ture of the sulphates and chlorides of soda and mag- 
nesia. The most harmful effect from the presence of 
white alkali is that it retards or entirely prevents ger- 
mination in the seeds. Some crops, however, will stand 
as much as one-tenth of one per cent, of white alkali. 

Black alkali is due to the presence of carbonate of 
soda along with the aforementioned salts. It dissolves 
the vegetable matter in the soil and gives it its dark 
color. It tends to consolidate the soil in proportion as 
it is present. In some instances, because of the previous 
nature of the soil, the black appearance may not come 
to the surface and yet there may be much carbonate of 
soda in the subsoil. When it is present in any consider- 
able quantity, the soils which contain it are practically 
untillable during the dry portions of the year. One- 
tenth of one per cent, of black alkali will prevent the 
growth of useful plants. Nevertheless in small amounts 
the alkalies are quite helpful in promoting vegetation. 
Plants will be much stimulated in their growth because 
of their presence. It is when they are present in excess 
that they become injurious. They are more injurious 
in seasons which have fairly good spring rains followed 
by a shortage in the summer rainfall. The salts are 
thus brought into the root zone by the excessive evapo- 
ration which follows, and the plants then fail because 
of drought. Unwise or excessive irrigation brings the 
alkali to the surface, and to the extent in some instances 
of rendering land unfruitful which previously may have 
produced good crops. Alkali is most liable to accumu- 
late where the land is depressed and where the drainage 
is not good. In humid areas the excess of these salts is 
washed out from time to time, so that in these their 
presence is not usually harmful. Both classes of alkali 
tend to destroy the soil texture. They destroy its granu- 
lar condition, causing it to become impervious to water. 



SOILS IN DRY AREAS - 75 

They lead to a plasticity of condition when it is wet, 
and they cause it to become cloddy when dry. 

Fortunately alkali soils do not usually cover large 
areas. INIore frequently they occur in spots and espe- 
cially where water collects in low ground at certain sea- 
sons of the year. In some instances, however, consid- 
erable bodies of land occur that are more or less impreg- 
nated with alkali. Such soils are very undesirable for 
tillage. 

Because of the difficulty found in tilling these soils 
their value is very low for agricultural uses at the present 
time, whatever the future may reveal. Because of this 
such lands should not be chosen for agricultural uses 
until more is known as to how they may be handled. 
They are usually exceedingly rich. The great obstacles 
to their tillage are, first, the difficulty found in handling 
them, and, second, the burning of the seed or crop that 
may be sown on them. 

The removal of alkali when present in excess is 
seldom an easy proposition and in some instances it is 
not practicable. The first step in removing it is to sup- 
ply thorough and complete drainage either through the 
agency of open or of tile drains. In some instances 
black alkali^in solution will not enter the latter. In such 
instances it should be changed to white. This is done 
by adding considerable quantities of gypsum ; that is, of 
sulphate of lime, which becomes carbonate of lime. When 
thus changed, the alkali may be washed down and out 
in the drainage water which is thus carried off in the 
drains. The second step is to work into the soil from 
10 to 20 tons per acre of strawy horse manure in the 
summer or early fall, in areas where much of the pre- 
cipitation comes in the winter, or in the spring when it 
comes subsequently to that time. It tends to prevent 
evaporation from coming to the surface, makes the soil 
more open and porous, and correspondingly reduces the 



76 DRY LAND FARMING 

tendency to puddling and baking. It also aids in sup- 
plying the. young plants with plant food when the alkali 
soil alone would not do so. The third step is to grow 
such plants as will aid in removing the alkali and will 
at the same time give a profitable return. Sugar beets 
will absorb more of the salts probably than any other 
crop, but it may not be easy to secure a stand of the 
young plants. Among the small grains oats have the 
highest adaptation for such soils. Sweet clover may also 
be used in removing alkali from these soils. 

Production as an index of soils. — If a soil is to pro- 
duce well in dry areas it must be possessed of certain 
physical and chemical characteristics. The former in- 
clude: (1) much depth of soil and subsoil; (2) much 
uniformity in the character of the soil grains in both 
soil and subsoil ; (3) much power to absorb and hold 
moisture, and (4) that blending of sand and clay ele- 
ments which favors easy tillage. The latter include: (1) 
the large inherent storage of the elements of plant food; 
(2) the elements of plant food held in proper balance, 
and (3) the absence in excess of such elements as may 
lead to what is termed an alkali condition of the soil 
In the absence of physical examination much may be 
determined by the character of the vegetation found 
growing on the soil. Such vegetation includes: (1) the 
growth of sage brush in one or the other of its forms ; 
(2) greasewood and rabbit brush in varying degrees of 
vigor and plentifulness; (3) sparse vegetation, and (4) 
the presence of various grasses. 

Sage brush is essentially a product of semi-arid soils 
in dry areas. It is of several types which cannot be 
dwelt upon in a work of this nature. It would seem 
correct to say, however, that the character of the sage 
brush is a measure of the fertility of semi-arid soils. 
Where the brush is abundant and of large growth, the 
ability of the soil to produce well under proper condi- 



SOILS IN DRY AREAS 77 

tions of tillage need not be questioned. This means 
that where sage brush is plentiful and of vigorous 
growth, the ability of the soil to produce abundantly 
need not be questioned under correct methods of tillage 
The soil constituents and the precipitation that will pro- 
duce large and abundant sage brush will also produce 
large crops of grain under proper conditions of tillage. 

Plants popularly known as ''greasewood" and "rabbit 
brush" grow on certain western soils. These indicate 
that alkali salts are present in that degree that will in- 
terfere with abundant production. Such soils may be 
tilled with a certain degree of success, but not with that 
degree of success that is to be looked for from the tillage 
of soils that are covered with an abundant growth of 
sage brush of relatively large size in the shrubs. 

In other areas, especially those that are very sandy 
in texture, the vegetation may be very sparse. The sage 
brush that may be growing on these is dwarfish and the 
plants are relatively distant. Such growth does not 
necessarily indicate any absence of the essential elements 
of fertility in the soil, but rather the absence of moisture. 
In those areas the production of grass is sparse in its 
character, and good crops cannot usually be grown in the 
absence of irrigation. 

The grasses which nature produces on the bench 
lands of the west are one of the surest indications of the 
possible production that may be looked for from the 
judicious tillage of the lands that produce those grasses. 
Where the native grasses form a sod that is reasonably 
dense on the untilled prairie, the presence of a sufficient 
rainfall for the production of good crops in a normal 
season need not be questioned. Where, however, the 
production of these grasses is sparse and limited, a light 
rainfall relatively is to be looked for. The precise char- 
acter of the grasses will vary with the soils and the 
amount of the precipitation, but it may be safely assumed 



78 DRY LAND FARMING 

that a free growth of grasses cannot be maintained in the 
absence of at least a reasonable amount of precipitation, 
regardless of the character of the soil. It may be taken 
for granted, therefore, that where the growth of native 
grasses is normally good, grains may be grown there 
with at least fair success under proper methods of tillage. 



CHAPTER V 
SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 

In the farming of dry areas the question of soil 
moisture is all-important. To farm such areas intelli- 
gently and successfully the farmer should have informa- 
tion regarding: (1) the amount and character of the 
precipitation ; (2) the rate of the evaporation ; (3) the 
methods by which water may be retained in the soil 
until it is needed, and (4) the plants that may be grown 
with the most complete success under the conditions 
that prevail. 

When judging of rainfall and the use that is to be 
made of the same, the farmer should have information 
not only in regard to the amount of the annual precipi- 
tation, but also with reference: (1) to the period cov- 
ered by the records; (2) the season or seasons when it 
falls, and (3) the manner in which it falls. The longer 
the period during which the records have been kept, the 
more reliable are they. It is never safe to base the nature 
of the farming to be followed on the record of precipi- 
tation for one or two seasons, the records vary so much 
in different years. In dry areas the rainfall of one year 
is sometimes less than one-half of normal, and in other 
years it is greatly in excess of the same. The season 
at which the rain falls has a greatly important influence, 
not only in determining the crops that shall be grown, 
but also the precise character of the tillage that should 
be adopted. These differ very materially when the bulk 
of the precipitation falls in the winter in the one case 
and in the summer in the other. The manner of the pre- 
cipitation has also an important influence on the methods 
that should be adopted in order to utilize it to the best 
advantage. 



80 DRY LAND FARMING 

While the degree of evaporation is probably less 
important than the amount of the precipitation, it is 
nevertheless greatly important. In areas far southward 
in the dry belt, the precipitation called for to produce 
plant growth is very considerably more than what is 
called for to effect the same in areas of the same alti- 
tude but located far to the northward (see p. 95). 

The methods by which water may be retained in 
the soil until it is needed involve consideration of the 
handling of the soil in all its phases, including: (1) the 
breaking up of the same; (2) the subsequent plowing; 
(3) the various processes of tillage, including packing, 
discing, harrowing and rolling; (4) subsoiling, and (5) 
succession in the crops that are to be grown. 

The plants that may be grown with the greatest 
success is in itself an important study. The species of 
plants not only differ very much in their adaptation to 
dry areas, but this is also true oT varieties of the same 
species. To attempt to grow those lacking in adaptation 
would not be wise. The value of correct information 
along these lines cannot easily be overestimated (see 
chapter X). 

Water in semi-arid soils.^Water occurs in all soils : 
(1) as free water; (2) capillary water; (3) hygroscopic 
water, and (4) the water that runs away and is lost to 
the soil. Jn semi-arid areas the free water and the water 
that runs away is much less abundant than in humid 
areas. The distinctions thus given are not sharply 
drawn, as will be apparent from what is said below. 

Free water, sometimes called gravitational water, 
is that which fills the pore spaces between the soil grains 
and moves down through the soil by gravity. When 
present in excess it excludes the air so as to hinder 
healthy plant growth and in many instances to confine it 
to growth that is not of much value. Passing down into 
the subsoil, it may reach a point where further descent 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 81 

ceases, and where ascent may begin, when it becomes cap- 
illary water, which is very frequently the case in semi- 
arid soils. In humid areas it frequently passes down un- 
til it reaches ground water below, when it may move lat- 
erally through the soil until it reaches some outlet, as for 
instance, through springs. When the water table is not 
too near nor too distant from the surface and when the 
supply is constant, it renders great service to plants by 
supplying them with water carried to the roots through 
capillary action. Water occurs thus not infrequently in 
the basins of semi-arid countries, more especially where 
mountains occur. When thus found it comes from 
higher levels. In its downward movement it finds a 
stratum of subsoil that is usually sufficiently porous to 
admit of free movement laterally. Such movement of 
water in the -soil is spoken of as seepage. The presence 
of such water at proper levels will frequently maintain 
good crops in areas where they will completely fail when 
not supplied from such a source. 

When the air spaces between the soil grains are 
completely filled, the maximum of gravitational water 
is present. The capacity of dry farm soils thus to hold 
this water will, of course, vary, but on the average it 
is from say 35 to 40 per cent, of the dry weight of the 
soil. In humid soils such water moves downward after 
every heavy rain, until it reaches the water table, that 
is, providing it is not too distant, when it flows out into 
streams. In dry areas the water table in the ordinary 
sense of the term is seldom present. In such areas 
it goes down as far as the force of gravity can take it, 
which is, of course, dependent upon the supply. It is 
thus stored in the subsoil as capillary water until drawn 
upon by plants in process of growth, in areas that are 
properly cultivated. The great importance of such wa- 
ter to the dry farmer cannot easily be overestimated, 
hence it should be his aim to increase this supply to the 



82 DRY LAND FARMING 

greatest extent practicable. This, of course, can only 
■be accomplished by keeping the soil sufficiently open 
to admit of the downward passage of all the water that 
falls, and by not cropping so frequently as to completely 
exhaust the supply. 

Capillary water is the thin film that surrounds and 
adheres to each soil grain. It is the outcome of the at- 
traction between soil grains and water which is always 
present. Because of the almost infinite number of the 
soil grains, an average soil may hold a large amount of 
capillary water. As the fineness of the soil grains in- 
creases, it is manifest that the capacity of the soil to 
hold capillary water will increase. Thus it is that the 
capacity of clay loams to hold capillary water is much 
greater than that of sandy loams. King is authority for 
the statement that the largest amount of water that can 
be held in clay loams varies from 23.67 to 18.16 per cent., 
in sandy loams from 17.65 to 10.67 per cent., and in 
humus soils from 44.72 to 21.29 per cent. 

The movement of capillary water in the soil is up- 
ward when it moves. It climbs thus on the principle 
that oil climbs up through the pore spaces of a lamp 
wick when the lamp is lighted. The supply of oil that 
renews the flame is thus maintained until the oil is con- 
sumed, when the flame must cease. Capillary water is 
thus drawn upon as the supply above becomes exhausted. 
It may be drawn up in two ways : first, to supply water 
removed from the surface by evaporation, and, second, to 
renew the supply called for by plants in process of 
growth. If evaporation should virtually cease, as it does 
frequently in winter in the absence of plant growth, the 
movement of - capillary water would practically cease 
for the time being. The movement of water in the soil 
may be thus summarized: (1) It enters the soil in the 
form of rain or melted snow. (2) It moves downward 
in the soil as gravitational water until it is converted 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 83 

into capillary water or until it reaches the water table 
below. (3) The distance that it goes down as gravita- 
tional water before it is converted into capillary water 
will depend mainly on the dryness of the soil and on the 
copious character or otherwise of the precipitation. (4) 
The rapidity of the downward movement will be ac- 
celerated by increase in the degree of the soil saturation. 
(5) It is being continually drawn upon by the influences 
of evaporation and to suppy the needs of growing' 
plants. (6) These drafts lead to that upward movement 
of the water known as capillary movement. (7) When 
the supply of capillary water is too small to meet the 
needs of the plants they languish proportionally in 
their growth. To maintain such supply is one of the 
most important questions that can engage the attention 
of the dry land farmer. 

Hygroscopic water is water that is held within the 
soil grains. The proportion of the hygroscopic water in 
the soil varies in soils and in localities. In some very dry 
areas this percentage has been placed at less than 2 per 
cent. 

Whether such water aids to any extent in promoting 
plant growth is a disputed question. It may aid in 
keeping the soil cooler than it would otherwise be in 
warm areas. It may also exercise some influence in 
bringing plant food into solution, but there is not enough 
of it present in the soil to make it a carrying agent. 

The run off waters are those that flow away: (1) in 
quick melting of the winter snows ; (2) from the down- 
pour of torrential rains, and (3) from the continuance 
of prolonged rainfall. Especially in areas where "Chi- 
nook" winds prevail, the snow melts so rapidly that 
much of it runs away before it can sink into the soil. 
In much of the semi-arid country rain frequently falls in 
showers that are dashing in character. In some locali- 
ties these assume the character of a downpour. Occa- 



84 DRY LAND FARMING 

sionally cloudbursts occur, and when they do the rain 
falls in sheets. When it falls thus much of the water is 
lost to the soil, much of the soil is also removed to lower 
levels and the gullying of the land becomes more pro- 
nounced. The aim should be, of course, to prevent such 
loss as far as this may be found practicable (see p. 128). 
The loss from the third source mentioned is seldom 
serious, as prolonged and heavy rains seldom occur in 
dry areas. 

Functions of water in soils. — These include : (1) dis- 
solving plant food in the soil ; (2) carrying the food 
dissolved to the plant, and (3) maintaining proper growth 
in the plant. These functions can only be found at their 
best in soils of proper texture, well supplied with the 
elements of plant food, free from matter hurtful to plant 
growth and in proper condition as to tilth ; water must 
also be present in sufficient quantities in the soil and 
subsoil. 

Plants take their food from the soil through the 
roots. These cannot appropriate the food unless it is 
held in solution. The water which surrounds the soil 
grains in the form of a film dissolves the food so that 
the plants can feed upon it. When the plant food is 
thus liberated in excess of the needs of the plants or at 
a season when plants are not growing, it is carried down 
in solution in the gravity water. Should this gravity 
water reach the water table below, it is much liable to 
be carried away in the drainage water. Should it be 
absorbed in the lower soil along with the capillary wa- 
ter, it may be again carried to the area where the roots 
of plants feed in the upward movement of the capillary 
water, and it may also be reinforced by plant food lib- 
erated in the lower levels that have been reached by 
moisture. 

The food solutions are carried to the plants through 
the root hairs which ramify through the pore spaces of 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 85 

the soil, hence the great benefit of plant growth by main- 
taining as far as this may be possible a suitable degree 
of tilth in soils. The rootlets cannot readily penetrate 
compact soils. The food thus absorbed is carried up 
from cell to cell in the plants to the leaves, where it is 
elaborated into food suitable for the plants. It is then 
distributed to those portions of the plants that are in 
need of it to enable them to make further growth. 

It is evident, therefore, that if plants are to be main- 
tained in vigorous growth, the food thus carried in solu- 
tion must be present in sufficient supply. The growth 
made will be restricted, other things being equal, in 
proportion as the necessary food is lacking. If not sup- 
plied in sufficent degree to continue growth, the cells 
become impaired and the leaves wilt. When this hap- 
pens, growth subsequently in many instances cannot be 
secured, and if secured it is never so vigorous again. 
Any period of stagnation in the growth of the plant 
hinders future development. In order to sustain good 
growth the food in the soil must first be held in solution 
by the capillary water in the same, hence the transcendent 
importance of a sufficiency of this element in dry areas. 

How soil moisture may be lost. — It may be lost: (1) 
by evaporation at the surface ; (2) by transpiration 
through plant growth, and (3) by leaching out through 
the subsoil. These influences may operate singly at dif- 
ferent times, or they may all operate at one and the 
same time. The first is operative chiefly in the season 
of mild and warm weather and the second only during 
the growing period. The third may be operative at any 
time, but under some conditions in dry areas it is not 
operative at all at any time. The greatest loss, how- 
ever, in much of the dry area, especially where the soil 
has not been tilled, occurs in the run off water that does 
not enter the soil at all. 



86 DRY LAND FARMTNG 

Evaporation at the surface means the loss of mois- 
ture from the soil as it climbs up through the pore spaces 
in the same to the surface, where it becomes vaporized 
as it becomes incorporated with the air. To prevent 
loss from this source is of the utmost importance to 
the farmer in dry areas, hence the extent to which this 
question is dwelt upon below. Under the most favor- 
able conditions the amount of moisture in the soil is 
less than could be utilized to the best advantage. If 
this should be lost or any large portion of it, the farmer 
is undone for that season. In dry farming the handling 
of the soil in a way that will cause the precipitation fall- 
ing upon the soil to enter the same to the greatest 
extent possible is fundamental, and of no less importance 
are measures that will tend to prevent the escape of mois- 
ture to the greatest extent possible until it has been 
utilized in growing plants. 

Loss of moisture by transpiration means the passing 
of moisture into the air through the leaves of the plant 
which has been taken from the soil by the roots. This 
process is continuous while growth lasts. It is a loss 
that cannot be lessened very much by those who till 
the soil. But the harm that may follow to succeeding 
crops may be minimized and in many instances entirely 
prevented by wisely regulating the rotation followed. 

Loss of moisture by leaching is of course the loss of 
water that has passed down through the soil into the 
subsoil, whence it moves on and out as drainage water 
into streams. 'It seldom occurs in dry areas, because 
of the small quantity that enters the soil. In humid 
areas the water that passes down through the soil carries 
with it in solution much plant food that has been taken 
out of the soil. The richer the soil and the more abun- 
dant the precipitation the greater is the loss from this 
source. This explains, in part at least, why soils in areas 
of much rainfall frequently call for much fertilization. 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 87 

while crops are being grown upon them. The farmer 
in dry areas is usually spared loss from this source. 

In some instances, nevertheless, soils may be ex- 
cessively wet, as when, for instance, seepage waters flow 
into depressions from a subterranean source. If these 
are possessed of much clay, they usually become hard 
when the water evaporates sufficiently to admit of tilling 
them. When plowed they turn up cloddy, and much 
labor is involved in pulverizing them. If plowed when 
wet they bake. Moreover, they are much liable to contain 
substances that are injurious to vegetation, as an excess 
of salts. These soils are undesirable, as has been al- 
ready shown (see p. 73). 

Loss of moisture by evaporation. — The chief in- 
fluences that lead to the loss of soil moisture by evapo- 
ration are: (1) sunshine; (2) dry and warm air, and 
(3) wind. The sun shining down on moist soil turns the 
moisture near the surface into vapor, which rises and 
mingles with the air. The rapidity of the process is 
proportionate to the heat of the sunshine and the de- 
gree of moisture in the soil. The influence of sunshine 
as a factor in removing moisture by evaporation is 
readily seen by comparing the quick drying of the sur- 
face soil after rain when exposed to bright sunshine 
with the slow drying of soil in a similar condition on 
a cloudy day. Sunshine is the most powerful factor in 
thus removing moisture. In dry areas such removal 
should be specially guarded against, because of the great 
abundance of the sunshine. 

Air penetrates the soil to a greater or lesser depth, 
according to its density or porosity. It more readily 
penetrates between the soil grains in a newly cultivated 
soil. As it passes between these, more or less of the mois- 
ture which adheres to the soil grains becomes incorpor- 
ated with the air thus dififused in the soil, and escapes 
with it into the atmosphere as a result of constant move- 



88 DRY LAND FARMING 

ment of air. The degree of the soil moisture thus re- 
moved is increased with increase in the dryness and 
warmth of the air. Warm air will hold several times 
more vapor than cold air. As the air is usually more dry 
in dry areas than in humid ones, the loss from this source 
will be much more in the former, and, because of the in- 
creased heat of summer, it will be much greater at that 
season than in winter. 

Wind is a strong factor in removing moisture from 
soils, especially moisture on or near the surface. The 
influence of wind in thus taking up moisture may be 
clearly seen in the rapidity with which water is removed 
from the highway by strong wind blowing, after rain. 
Winds are usually more prevalent in dry than in humid 
areas, because of the comparatively treeless condition of 
the former, hence the relative loss of the moisture from 
this source is greater. These influences frequently act 
in conjunction, and when they do the loss of moisture 
from the soil will be very rapid in the absence of meas- 
ures to prevent it. 

The extent to which soil moisture is lost through 
evaporation will be proportionate: (1) to the extent to 
which the agencies of air and wind are operative in re- 
moving it ; (2) to the extent to which other influences 
are present that facilitate such loss, and (3) to the ex- 
tent to which soil conditions are absent that would tend 
to lessen and prevent the same. 

From what has been said, it will be apparent that 
evaporation will be much greater in southern than in 
northern areas of the dry belt. In the former the sun- 
shine is hotter, and the humidity of the air is less. The 
winds may not be any stronger but they are warmer. 
The annual average evaporation of surface water in 
dry areas is usually several times greater than the an- 
nual precipitation. In the Panhandle of Texas, the annu- 
al evaporation has been placed at about 54 inches, where- 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 89 

as along the Canadian boundary in North Dakota and 
Montana it is not more than half that amount. It is even 
more imperative, therefore, that measures shall be taken 
promptly and persistently to prevent the escape of soil 
moisture in areas far south than in those far north. 

Prominent among the other influences that aid the 
escape of soil moisture in the absence of preventive 
measures are showers, especially those that fall fre- 
quently and in small quantities. AVater climbs upward 
in the soil by capillary attraction. The more thin the 
film of water that surrounds the soil grains the more 
slowly does it move upward. SJiould the soil be dry, 
the upward movement ceases. Should rain fall and 
moisten the soil down to where soil moisture is still 
present, the upward movement begins again. Water 
moves up to the surface and unchecked mingles with 
the air. If this movement is not checked by stirring the 
surface soil, much moisture will soon escape. Such stir- 
ring of the soil is much more liable to be neglected after 
light than after heavy rains, hence the hazard that light 
showers will bring to dry farming in this way. 

Subsurface packing of the soil may also facilitate 
the escape of soil moisture from below, since it facili- 
tates the ascent of the same by making it possible for 
it to climb more readily toward the surface than would 
be possible in the absence of such packing. Any influ- 
ence that will facilitate the ascent of soil moisture will 
facilitate the escape of the same in the absence of hin- 
dering influences. 

Weeds also pump water out of the soil in the proc- 
ess of growth, hence the loss of moisture from this source 
will be proportionate to the extent to which weeds are 
allowed to grow. The same is true of useful plants in 
their growth, but with the former there is no compensa- 
tion as with the latter. 



90 DRY LAND FARMING 

The measures that may be adopted to prevent or 
at least to lessen the escape of soil moisture include the 
following: (1) The maintenance of a dust mulch on 
land that is being fallowed ; (2) the stirring- or cultivat- 
ing of the soil that has been sown or planted, and (3) 
the artificial shading of the soil. 

A dust or soil mulch is a dry layer of earth cover- 
ing the surface of the soil. It is formed by pulverizing 
the surface after the land has been plowed. It may also 
be formed by discing stubble land in the autumn or 
spring, and by stirring fall-plowed land in the early 
spring, that has settled upon itself. The implement 
chiefly used in making it is the spike-tooth harrow, but 
on cloddy soils the aid of the roller or the planker may 
be called in. On hard surfaces the disc should precede 
the harrow. The process is frequently spoken of as sum- 
mer tillage. The depth of the mulch is from 2 to 3 
inches. The fineness of the same is dependent to some 
extent on the character of the soil. On some soils, espe- 
cially those that are granular, it does not readily become 
too fine. On others, as fine clays, the excessive use of 
the harrow may make the soil so fine that it is not readily 
penetrated by rain. In clay soils covered with a dust 
mulch, the loss by evaporation is greater than in those 
covered by a mulch of coarse particles, as coarse sand, 
for the reason that water climbs more readily in fine than 
in coarse soil particles. 

Rain is the chief agent in destroying the efliciency 
of the dust mulch. It does so: (1) by tending to restore 
the pore connections between the dust mulch and the 
soil below, and (2) by the numerous cracks which fol- 
low in many soils from the rapid drying of a more or 
less impacted surface. It is greatly important that the 
soil mulch shall be renewed after rains, and especially 
after heavy rain in many of the soils of the west. The 
aim should be to make such renewal at the most pro- 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 91 

pitious time, that is, when the soil has dried enough to 
prevent it from sticking to the harrow, but not enough 
to cause it to crumble into particles too fine. Of course 
in practise this cannot always be done when very large 
areas are to be harrowed. 

The chief use of the mulch is to prevent the loss of 
soil moisture. This loss is far greater in the upper layer 
of the soil than in those layers that are lower, hence the 
great importance of maintaining the soil mulch on sum- 
mer tilled lands. But it may also serve to aid in the 
increase of the moisture content of the soil, and in put- 
ting the soil in a condition that will favor the active 
working of the bacteria that inhabit the same. The first 
result follows from the added moisture through rain, 
which, because of the tillage, finds easy penetration into 
the soil. The amount of such accumulation will be pro- 
portionate to the amount of precipitation, and to the 
effectiveness of the measures for preventing its escape. 
All the moisture that enters the soil cannot be saved, but 
a very large proportion of it can, as much in some in- 
stances as 50 per cent. The second follows from the 
moisture thus maintained in the soil and the aeration 
given. ' 

In some soils and under some conditions, the drying 
of the surface soil is so rapid and complete that this in 
itself forms a mulch, so to speak, through which moisture 
cannot pass up from below. This explains why moist 
soil may sometimes be found under soil that is quite 
dry on the surface. Such a condition may also be brought 
about where the temperature is high, the sunshine abun- 
dant and the relative humidity low. 

The results that follow the judicious cultivation of 
growing crops are virtually the same in kind as those 
that follow the maintenance of the soil mulch on land 
that is fallow. The cultivation is given with the har- 
row when applied to cereals and with both the harrow 



92 DRY LAND FARMING 

and cultivator when applied to such crops as corn and 
potatoes. The cultivation also seeks the destruction of 
weeds, which will sap moisture from the soil more com- 
pletely when they are allowed to grow numerously than 
any other agency. So valuable and so effective are these 
methods of maintaining soil moisture that in dry areas 
they are practised on crops by growing them in rows 
though not usually grown thus, as alfalfa for instance, 
in order to make such cultivation possible. When ap- 
plied to small grains, however, the yields have not been 
found sufficient to justify the practise. 

' Shading the soil and thus protecting it from evapo- 
ration may be incidental or it may be» designedly done. 
It is incidental when it is the result of crop growth, as 
when it is furnished by the cereals when too advanced 
in growth to admit of harrowing them longer, by corn 
and other cultivated crops when the plants have attained 
a considerable size, and by the high-cut stubbles of ma- 
ture grain that has been harvested. It is done through 
design when the soil or the crop is strewn with straw, 
manure or some other substance. Such a method of pre- 
venting the escape of moisture has been found effective 
in a considerable degree when applied to orchard and 
other trees, and even to grass lands. The reduction of 
evaj)oration by a broad-leafed crop, as corn, when well 
grown, is very considerable. 

Loss of soil moisture by transpiration. — Soil mois- 
ture may be lost, as previously intimated, in three ways, 
viz.: (1) by leaching; (2) by evaporation, and (3) by 
transpiration. The loss by leaching, as has been shown, 
seldom occurs in dry areas. The loss by evaporation, of- 
tentimes serious, has just been discussed. The loss by 
transpiration through the leaves of plants is several 
times greater than the loss that usually occurs by evapo- 
ration. 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 93 

Plants in the process of growth take up water from 
the soil, by means of minute root hairs at the extremities 
of the rootlets. The water thus taken into the plant con- 
tains more or less of certain elements of plant food 
taken from the soil. It passes from cell to cell or up 
through tubes within the plant until it reaches the leaves, 
whence it passes off into the air. Through the medium 
of water, therefore, the elements concerned in promot- 
ing growth are distributed to all parts of the plant. As 
the water passes ofif into the air, there is a demand for 
more water, to sustain the processes of growth, hence 
the demand upon the water supply in the soil continues 
until growth is completed. 

Many things are yet to be learned about the tran- 
spiration of water through plants. It would seem safe to 
say, however, that it is influenced by the following con- 
ditions : It is increased: (1) by increased temperature; 
(2) by decreased humidity; (3) by increase in the 
velocity of the wind; (4) by increase in the sunlight; (5) 
by increasing age in the plant up to the blossoming 
stage, and (6) by increase in the strength and the diffu- 
sion of the root system. It is very evident, therefore, 
that transpiration from plants is more rapid, other things 
being equal, in dry than in humid climates. It is de- 
creased: (1) by increase in the soil water of the food 
elements which the plants require to properly sustain 
them, and (2) by adaptation in the plants to the require- 
ments of growth under dry conditions. This last con- 
sideration is one of great moment, viewed from the 
standpoint of the future of dry farming. 

The farmer can do but little directly to reduce tran- 
spiration in the crops. The greater the supply of plant 
food maintained in the soil, and the more available its 
condition, the less will be the relative amount of water 
taken from the soil. This emphasizes the wisdom on 
the part of the dry land farmer in maintaining a liberal 



94 DRY LAND FARMING 

supply of plant food in the soil in a readily available 
form. This in dry areas may be accomplished meanwhile 
by that high-class cultivation which will insure the abun- 
dant liberation of fertility. 

While not very much can be done to regulate the 
amount of water transpired by individual plants, the 
farmer can do much to regulate the amount of water 
taken from the soil in the aggregate, by regulating crop 
growth, and he can increase the amount of water avail- 
able for transpiration. He may influence the amount of 
water that shall be taken from the soil : First, by decid- 
ing as to the crops that he will grow, some of which take 
more and some less moisture from the soil. Second, he 
may regulate the thickness or the thinness of the stand 
of the plants in a given crop. Third, when he finds that 
a crop that has been sown inopportunely is not going to 
prove remunerative, he should at once remove or bury 
it, and thus stop the drain on soil moisture to no pur- 
pose that is being made by the plants that compose the 
crop. The amount of water available for transpiration 
may, of course, be increased by that cultivation which 
will encourage the entrance of water into the soil and 
which will retard its escape when it has so entered. 
Experiment has shown that the amount of water called 
for to produce a pound of dry matter in various soils is 
much greater in those that are not well cultivated than 
in those which are. Experiments conducted in Utah 
have proved that the summer-fallow materially reduces 
the amount of water called for by plants as compared 
with land that has been continuously cropped. 

As cultivation extends in dry areas and as it becomes 
more carefully conducted, the store of moisture in the 
soil will increase ; as the crop area increases, transpira- 
tion through the growing of crops will also increase. 
To such an extent will this increase prevail, that it should 
exercise a material influence by increasing the humidity 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 95 

in the air, and this in turn should tend to lessen the in- 
jury done by the hot winds that sometimes prevail in 
dry areas. This increase in transpiration has led to the 
hope that it will result in an increase in the precipitation, 
but the evidence based on the results does not sustain 
this view; The influence emanating from this increased 
transpiration does not appear to be enough to affect the 
precipitation, at least to any very appreciable extent. 

Other influences that affect evaporation. — Among 
the influences that affect evaporation in addition to those 
that have been dwelt upon are: (1) the influence result- 
ing from latitude ; (2) the influence resulting from alti- 
tude, and (3) that resulting from the store of humus in 
the soil. In the discussion of this question these influ- 
ences cannot be ignored, because of the important bear- 
ing which they exercise upon evaporation. 

Latitude influences evaporation because of the in- 
fluence which it exerts upon temperature. Evaporation 
increases with increase in the temperature. This ex- 
plains why evaporation is greatest when the summer 
heat is greatest, other things being equal, and why it is 
least in cool and cold weather. The loss of soil 
moisture, therefore, in northern latitudes, will be pro- 
portionately increased, other things being equal, with 
increase in the temperature which follows as the result 
of the lower latitude of the locality. 

The influence of altitude is probably no less potent 
than that of latitude. With increase in the altitude 
comes decrease in the temperature, and with decrease 
in the temperature comes a lessened transpiration. Ele- 
vation alone may result in protecting a crop from the 
baneful influences of a temperature that will wither the 
same in lower altitudes, notwithstanding that these may 
be in the same latitude. Thus it is that betimes a crop 
will be withered in a low valley by hot winds which do 
not harm the same on a high altitude in proximity there- 



96 DRY LAND FARMING 

to, the latitude being the same. Because of the influence 
thus exerted by latitude and altitude on evaporation, it 
has been claimed by high authority that 15 inches of an- 
nual precipitation in Dakota or Montana will be as help- 
ful in sustaining vegetation as 20 inches in southwestern 
Nebraska and northwestern Kansas. 

The influence of humus in the soil is very potent 
on the transpiration that will result, not only because it 
lessens transpiration, but because it increases the mois- 
ture supply available for transpiration. A soil well stored 
with humus will sustain plant growth without languish- 
ing in a time of drought for a much longer period than 
a soil not thus prepared to resist the influences of drought. 
But the best methods of storing the soil with humus in 
dry areas have but imperfectly been worked out. The 
crops that are best fitted to increase the humus supply 
and the best methods of growing them are as yet but 
imperfectly understood (see p. 420). 

The importance of subsoil moisture. — The chief 
function of water in the subsoil in dry areas is to fur- 
nish a supply to the growing crops, when the supply 
from the surface soil is insufficient to meet the needs of 
the same. This is done by entering the root hairs that 
penetrate between the subsoil particles, and by furnish- 
ing additional water drawn from lower depths through 
capillary movement. Winter wheat and winter rye are 
frequently brought safely to maturity through water 
from this source. Crops of spring grain may grow vig- 
orously for a time and then fail because of the shortage 
of water in the soil near the surface, whereas such fail- 
ure would not have occurred had a sufliciency of moisture 
been present in the subsoil. But the fact should never 
be forgotten that the upward movement of subsoil mois- 
ture will carry it into the air when not taken up by grow- 
ing plants, or when such escape is not prevented bv the 
presence of a dust mulch on the surface. 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 97 

Such water serves the further purpose of facilitat- 
ing the passage of water downward to lower levels where 
it enters the soil. Water penetrates a moist soil more 
quickly than a dry one, hence the maintenance of a sup- 
ply of water in the subsoil tends to deepen the area of 
such reserve supply. Experiment has shown that in 
well managed soils in dry areas the moisture in the soil 
in the spring is considerably more than it was in the au- 
tumn, but this result did not follow when the surface 
soil was hard. Subsoil moisture is an important regu- 
lator of crop growth, hence the great wisdom of trying 
to increase the supply of the same. Injury from water 
carried up from lower depths occurs only when sub- 
stances hurtful to plant life, as alkali, are present in the 
subsoil water. 

To get water down into the subsoil is one of the first 
considerations that should engage the attention of the 
farmer, and to increase the storage of the same should 
be an object of constant solicitude. The following are 
chief among the methods by which it may be accom- 
plished: (1) by opening up the soil deeply when break- 
ing it; (2) by keeping it fallow the first season; (3) by 
maintaining the surface soil in that condition which will 
admit of easy access of water when it falls ; (4) by grow- 
ing alfalfa in the rotation every few years; (5) by not 
cropping too freely with small grains ; (6) by preventing 
water from running away over the surface. 

Opening up the soil deeply at the first is one of the 
most effective methods of getting water down into the 
subsoil. Usually this is not easily done and it is costly. 
The more deeply the soil is stirred when breaking it or 
by subsoiling, the more deeply will water penetrate in 
the average season. But if the farmer crops the land the 
first season, the crop takes from it in its growth mois- 
ture that would otherwise have gone down into the sub- 
soil. Those who can afiford it, therefore, should allow 



98 DRY LAND FARMING 

breaking to lie fallow the first season, whether the land 
is plowed in the autumn or in the spring. The surface 
soil is kept in condition for the easy access of water 
when it is subjected to the summer-fallowing process, 
or when a cultivated crop is grown upon it. The use 
of the disc on stubble land after harvest aids materially 
in the storage of water in the soil. When land is 
being fallowed or a cultivated crop is being grown upon 
it, the forming of a crust a few inches below the surface 
should be guarded against. If present it should be 
broken up by deep cultivation. When alfalfa comes fre- 
quently in the rotation the spaces occupied by the de- 
cayed roots form ready channels for the easy descent of 
water into the subsoil. If the farmer persists in growing 
small grains on the land year after year where the pre- 
cipitation is light, the soil moisture will be drawn upon 
to such an extent that none will be left to enter the sub- 
soil. The run off waters may be partially held until 
they enter the soil, but loss from this source may not 
be wholly prevented in all instances. Loss from this 
source only occurs when moisture accumulates within 
short periods of time, as when rain comes in downpours 
or snows melt suddenly. The plowing, discing and har- 
rowing of sloping land along the slope will lessen the 
loss. Keeping surfaces from baking will do the same. 
Stubbles also are helpful. It is not possible under any 
conditions to save all the water that enters the soil, 
but much of it may be saved. When the subsoil is 
moistened to low depths, the roots will feed deeply save 
where there is an excess of water in the lower soil. 

In humid areas the question is not usually how to 
retain subsoil moisture, but how to get rid of the excess. 
In dry areas the former will always be a burning ques- 
tion. The subsoil moisture, like the soil moisture, is 
drawn upon from two sources. One is the needs of the 
crops that are grown. The other is the influences con- 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 99 

cerned in evaporation. Draughts from the first source 
can only be partially prevented while grain crops oc- 
cupy the soil. But it may be regulated by regulating the 
number of the crops to be grown and also the kind of 
the crops. Those from the second source (see p. 165) 
may be greatly lessened but not entirely prevented by 
the maintenance of the soil mulch even as persistently 
as this may be practicable. Under no circumstances can 
it be maintained so continuously as to entirely prevent 
loss from evaporation. Even on the carefully managed 
summer-fallow there will be loss. When rain falls, water 
is taken from and near the surface before the mulch can 
be renewed by using the harrow. Small showers and 
frequent, aid in such escape. Vapor comes up from be- 
low in hot weather and cracks are formed through which 
moisture escapes. There are periods when a dust mulch 
cannot be maintained, as when grain crops are in the ad- 
vanced stages of growth. When the land is plowed in 
the autumn some moisture is lost from a dantp surface, 
and the same is true in the early spring. From all these 
causes moisture will escape, hence in many soils it has 
been thought that not more than half the precipitation 
that falls is retained. But it is very evident that the loss 
of moisture will decrease as the dust mulch is main- 
tained. The more, therefore, that the processes of culti- 
vation are followed that will admit of maintenance of 
the dust mulch, the less will be the loss of moisture from 
the soil and subsoil. 

The utilization of subsoil moisture. — The stored wa- 
ter in the soil and subsoil is much more valuable than an 
equal amount of rain water falling during the period of 
crop growth. It contains nitrates formed the previous 
season. These are not washed out as in humid regions. 
It also increases the supply of potash and phosphoric 
acid in the soil. It is in a considerable degree secure 
from evaporation, and it enables the roots to penetrate 



100 DRY LAND FARMING 

more deeply than would otherwise be possible. But 
beneficial as subsoil moisture is to growing crops, there 
are limitations as to the extent to which it should be 
drawn upon. The idea has prevailed that the large yields 
in the Canadian west are the outcome of moisture lib- 
erated gradually in the subsoil by the melting of the 
frost of winter as summer advances. It would be claim- 
ing too much to say that no advantage results to the 
crop from this source, but it is correct to say that the 
chief advantage to the crop comes from moisture that 
has been stored in the soil and subsoil the previous sum- 
mer, and as the outcome of the nitrates which the sub- 
soil moisture contained. 

Under some conditions, from 50 to 90 per cent, of 
the precipitation that falls may be stored in the soil and 
subsoil. The larger percentage, of course, goes to the 
surface soil. Much of the water stored in the surface is 
drawn upon by the crop in the early stages of growth. 
The question naturally arises, how much of the moisture 
stored in the subsoil should be drawn upon in the grow- 
ing of crops and how much should be left because of 
the influence which it exerts on the accumulation of 
subsoil moisture. The larger the quantity of water in 
the soil in the autumn, the more quickly will the winter 
and spring precipitation go down, and the greater will 
be the store of the accumulation. It is very evident, 
therefore, that it would be unwise to follow a system 
of tillage that would at any time exhaust the soil of its 
supply of subsoil moisture. Experiment has shown that 
when moisture is maintained in the subsoil, the tendency 
is to increase in such moisture. More especially is this 
true in areas where much of the precipitation falls in the 
winter. Subsoil moisture is sometimes drawn upon to 
no good purpose. 

Moisture from the subsoil is drawn upon to no good 
purpose when the supply is insufficient to properly ma- 



SOIL MOISTURE AND DRY FARMING 101 

ture a crop. This result is almost certain to follow 
when grain crops are grown every year in the semi-arid 
country. The amount of moisture in the soil and also 
in the subsoil are not enough to properly mature a 
grain crop in a dry year, and the outcome is that the 
crop fails. The moisture that has been used in growing 
it is therefore lost. Under such conditions subsoil mois- 
ture is drawn upon to no good purpose. 

A reserve of moisture in the subsoil is so important 
that its presence or absence may make the difference 
between success and failure in the growing of crops. In 
areas with an average rainfall of less than 15 inches, ex- 
periment has shown that enough of reserve moisture 
cannot be maintained in the soil to produce good crops 
when small grains are grown upon the soil every year. 
In a dry year they may promise well for a time, but be- 
fore they reach full maturity they fail. Experiments 
conducted by the Montana experiment station extending 
over a period of five years have shown that more grain 
can be obtained in a series of years by alternate crop- 
ping and alternate summer-fallowing of the land than 
by growing on it annual crops of small grains. Such a 
process of tillage maintains a reserve of moisture in the 
soil and this reserve carries a crop through safely in a 
time of drought that but for its presence might abso- 
lutely fail. 

In order to maintain this reserve of soil moisture, 
therefore, the bare-fallow must be occasionally intro- 
duced where such introduction is practicable. It may 
not be practicable in all instances, as where, for instance, 
soils are so light as to drift with the wind. In lieu of 
the summer-fallow a cultivated crop may answer the 
purpose, but not quite so well, as the cultivated crop 
makes drafts upon the soil moisture in the process of its 
growth. The timeliness of the cultivation and the depth 
of the same to effect these ends is greatly significant. 



102 DRY LAND FARMING 

Experiments conducted in Utah have tended to empha- 
size the great importance of stirring the soil at the ear- 
liest moment practicable in order to conserve soil mois- 
ture after rainfall. Nearly one-half the entire loss from 
the unstirred surface soil of fallow land was lost during 
the first three days subsequent to the rainfall. The 
depth to which the soil should be cultivated in order to 
conserve the moisture is still an unsettled question. Of 
course it is influenced by soils. For the retention of 
soil moisture only, it will probably be found that deep 
cultivation is to be preferred to shallow, but when a cul- 
tivated crop is being grown, cultivation should not be 
practised deep enough to seriously interfere with the 
growth of the plants. The objections to the summer 
fallow are: (1) the loss of a crop for a single season; 
(2) the depletion of organic matter in the soil, and (3) 
the blowing of the soil in certain areas. The first ob- 
jection may be obviated by growing a cultivated crop, 
which, in addition to furnishing the crop, will serve al- 
most the same purposes as the summer-fallow. In both 
instances, however, the depletion of the organic matter 
is about the same, but in the case of the cultivated crop 
some benefit has resulted to the crop' grown. It has 
been stated that the blowing of soil may be prevented 
entirely by stirring it at the opportune time after rain, 
so that it may form granules rather than soil particles. 
This is only partially true. 



CHAPTER VI 
PLANT GROWTH IN DRY AREAS 

In some respects plant growth in dry areas is, of 
course, the same as in humid areas. The laws that govern 
the processes of growth are the same the world over, 
Init the results may be widely different from the opera- 
tion of those laws, because of modifications in their ap- 
plication. These modifications are the outcome of 
changed conditions. The leading characteristics of plant 
growth peculiar to dry areas will be discussed in this 
chapter. 

Some features peculiar to such growth. — These in- 
clude the following: (1) It is more sparse than in humid 
areas. (2) It is more or less dwarfish. (3) It tends 
to abundant fruitage. (4) It is made chiefly in the early 
season. (5) It is less certain than in humid areas. 

The evidences of sparseness of growth in dry areas 
are more or less present in all portions. The grass plants 
are less numerous relatively on a given area. Even the 
sage brush shrubs grow at some distance from one an- 
other. A dense covering of grass such as results from 
the growth of blue grass in moist situations is seldom 
or never met with, nor is the land covered by a thick 
growth of bushes save in proximity to streams, or that 
are in some way supplied with ground water. So in- 
variably is such sparse growth present that the degree 
of the same furnishes a fairly reliable index of the amount 
of the precipitation. The soil also, of course, has some 
influence on the density or sparseness of the growth. 
Such growth is a wise provision of nature to proportion 
growth to the number of plants so that each may have 
enough moisture to enable it to reproduce itself. It is 
on the same principle that production which is the out- 
come of cultivation is more satisfactory when the plants 



104 DRY LAND FARMING 

grow more or less thinly than when they are too numer- 
ous. Should the plants be too few to result in maximum 
production, nature in part at least makes up for the lack 
by the abundant stooling of the plants. This stooling, 
so marked in dry areas under proper conditions of 
growth, is caused in part at least by the strength of the 
root system developed in^ch areas. 

Grain and forage plants in dry areas are dwarfish 
in their habits of growth. This peculiarity is character- 
istic of all dry areas, and, other things being equal, it is 
present increasingly as the moisture decreases. Grains 
in the dry areas are usually much shorter than the same 
in humid areas. The same is true of corn and other for- 
age plants. Even fruit trees do not attain to a near 
approach in size to the same varieties in humid areas. 
The scarcity of moisture is doubtless in part and prob- 
ably chiefly responsible for this result, as enough mois- 
ture is not present to promote rapid growth during the 
season for the same. The lack of rainfall that is usually 
present after midsummer makes the growing seasons 
very short and tends much to hasten maturity. 

The fruitage in plants is very abundant. This char- 
acteristic pervades all plant life. It is seen not only in 
the relatively large yields obtained from dwarfish fields 
of grain, but it is also seen in the enormous fruitage 
that characterizes growth in all kinds of fruit-bearing 
trees, the large as well as the small. It is the outcome 
in part of the abundant food materials in the soil for 
the production of seed and fruit rather than of wood, 
stem and leaf growth, and in part of the absence of exu- 
berance in the growth of these. Marked exuberance in 
the growth of wood in the tree, or of stem and leaves 
in the plants, draws the energies of the plant, so to speak, 
away from the production of fruit or seed. It would also 
seem to be a law of nature that the harder the struggle 



PLANT GROWTH IN DRY AREAS 105 

for existence the more are the energies of the plants 
centered in producing the elements that relate to repro- 
duction. 

The growth of plants in dry areas is nearly all made 
early in the season. This is more especially true of 
areas in which the precipitation, or much of it, falls dur- 
ing the period of early growth. The grasses of the prai- 
rie as a rule cease to make appreciable growth after July, 
whereas the grasses in humid areas usually make much 
growth in the autumn, and in many instances continue 
to grow on until the closing in of winter. The partial 
and oftentimes complete cessation of growth after mid- 
summer is the outcome of the lack of moisture in the 
soil, and this is further accentuated by the lack of mois- 
ture in the air. This it is that makes it so important that 
land on which winter crops are to be sown shall have 
the moisture conserved by proper cultivation during the 
summer previously. In some limited areas, as in the 
upper Flathead valley for instance, enough moisture 
falls in the autumn to result in a more or less free 
autumn growth. 

That production in dry areas will be less certain 
than in humid areas, at least in some of its phases, can- 
not be gainsaid. This results from variation in the an- 
nual precipitation and in the time of the same. It does 
not follow that the actual variations in the precipitation 
will be greater in dry than in humid areas, but they will 
be felt more. In dry areas the precipitation is seldom 
or never beyond the best needs of the crops in a normal 
season, while in humid areas an excess of moisture is 
not infrequent. The crop in dry areas will take harm 
usually in proportion as the shortage from the normal 
increases, whereas an equal decrease in the rainfall in 
humid areas may do but little harm. From what has 
been said the necessity for the proper conservation of 



106 DRY LAND FARMING 

moisture in dry areas will always be present in order to 
guard against the contingency of crop failure. 

The functions of water in the soil. — Chief among 
the functions of water in the soil are the following: (1) 
to improve its physical condition; (2) to act upon it 
chemically, and (3) to carry food to plants. Each of 
these functions is greatly important. 

In the absence of water, soils cannot be tilled as a 
rule without greatly increased labor. This explains why 
breaking the soil in dry areas is usually more or less 
laborious. Such unbroken soil is too lacking in moisture 
during much of the year to plow easily. It is so firm that 
heavy rains usually run away over the surface to a very 
considerable extent. This explains why the wide-awake 
farmer is so careful to push plowing rapidly at those 
seasons when the ground has in it the largest amount of 
moisture. The service rendered by water in facilitating 
pulverization as the outcome of tillage is no less im- 
portant. Deep plowing on stifif soils in the absence of 
moisture is virtually prohibitory and pulverization is 
even more difificult. 

All the ways in which water acts upon the soil 
chemically cannot be discussed here, but it may be 
said that it is a principal agent in promoting the decay 
of vegetable matter in the soil, the acids from which aid 
in the liberation of plant food. In the absence of mois- 
ture buried vegetable substances in the soil will not 4e- 
cay, and until the decaying process begins it cannot 
act upon the soil chemically. Water also dissolves plant 
food in the soil, changing it from the insoluble into the 
soluble form, so that the plants may take it up readily. 
Until such transformation takes place sufficiently, plants 
may starve in the soil in the presence of an abundant 
supply of unreduced food. In humid areas water is fre- 
quently present in excess. When it is, two evils may 
follow. One is the dissolving of plant food too rapidly 



PLANT GROWTH IN DRY AREAS 107 

in tJie soil and carrying it down out of the reach of 
plant roots and into the drainage water before it can be 
taken up b}^ the plants. The other is, excluding the air 
when the soil becomes saturated. In such a condition 
the transformations referred to practically cease. Satura- 
tion also stays the process of tillage. In dry areas such 
excess of water is seldom, and in a great majority of 
instances never, present. Thus far, therefore, soils in 
dry areas have a great advantage over soils in humid 
areas. 

In the early part of the season, it aids in warming the 
soil, which in turn favors germination and early growth. 
These results follow the greater degree of warmth in the 
water that falls at that season than is possessed by the 
soil. AVhen the soil becomes unduly warm, as in summer, 
water falling on it from the clouds cools it, and such cool- 
ing at that season promotes growth. It is only when mois- 
ture, heat and air are present in the soil that the bac- 
teria in the same can fulfill the ends for which they ex- 
ist. Should any one of these be absent beyond a certain 
degree, their activity ceases. 

Water is also the medium through which food is car- 
ried to plants. This food is dissolved through the ac- 
tion of water, and is held in solution by the same. While 
in this condition it is taken up by the minute hairs which 
are attached to the rootlets of plants, and is thence con- 
veyed through the plants for their support and upbuild- 
ing. The importance, therefore, of a sufficient supply of 
water in the soil to accomplish this end will be appar- 
ent, from whatsoever source it may be obtained. 

Reducing the loss of water.— Since water in the soil 
is so precious in dry areas, the importance of practical 
measures that may be adopted for its maintenance cannot 
be easily over-estimated. In various ways its loss may 
be reduced. Prominent among these are the following: 
(1) by storing it deeply in the soil; (2) by surface cul- 



108 DRY LAND FARMING 

tivation ; (3) by keeping down weed growth, and (4) by 
shading the soil, as in the process of mulching. In humid 
areas these preventive measures call for but little consid- 
eration. 

Where the precipitation is not more than 15 inches 
in a year, the unbroken soil is usually so firm and dense 
that rains seldom penetrate it to the depth of more than 
a few feet, usually not more than 2 to 4, and much of the 
water that falls does not enter the soil at all, but runs 
away over its surface. When the dense soil is broken 
up and especially by deep plowing supplemented by sub- 
soiling, the water that falls, or much of it, goes down. If 
the land is summer-fallowed the first season, it goes down 
usually to the depth of 2 to 3 feet. The more frequently 
that the land is summer-fallowed and also cultivated, as 
through the growing of a cultivated crop, the more 
deeply will the water that falls from the skies go down 
into the subsoil. It penetrates but slowly into the dry 
'"■ground below, but within a very limited term of years it 
will work down in the subsoil to the depth of, say, 6 to 
10 feet. As moisture works down into the subsoil, the 
more quickly will that which falls work downward, 
hence the more will be the proportion of that which 
falls that will work down into the subsoil, on the suppo- 
sition that the surface soil is properly tilled. 

The advantages of storing moisture in the subsoil, 
as far as this may be practicable, include: (1) the fact 
that moisture is much less readily lost from the subsoil 
than from the ordinary tillable areas of the same, and (2) 
that because of this the subsoil may furnish a reserve of 
moisture at a critical time when it may be impossible to 
obtain a supply from any other source. Experiments in 
Utah have shown that in 7 days the first foot of soil that 
contained 23.22 per cent, lost 13.30 pounds of the same, 
while another soil, that contained but 16.64 per cent., lost 
only 8.48 pounds. The total water in these two soils to 



PLANT GROWTH IN DRY AREAS 109 

the depth of 8 feet was at the outset 17.57 and 16.55 per 
cent., which shows very conclusively that the larger the 
proportion of the water in the surface soil, the greater rel- 
atively will be the loss, and vice versa, the treatment of 
the soils being the same in both instances. When the sur- 
face soil is kept in proper condition, the loss of moisture 
from the subsoil is very little, save through transpiration 
in growing plants. 

The most potent agency in preventing the escape of 
moisture from the soil which it has entered is surface cul- 
tivation. The influence of cultivation, mainly through 
the maintenance of the dust mulch is discussed elsewhere 
(see p. 165). The same is also true of the maintenance of 
humus in the soil, which also is discussed more fully in 
another chapter (see p. 413). Of course no system of cul- 
tivation can be adopted that will entirely prevent the 
loss of moisture or even the loss of more than half of it 
on the average, during the year, but beyond all question 
a system of cultivation may be followed that will safely 
hold a large share of the moisture that would be lost 
to the soil in the absence of such cultivation. 

Reference is made elsewhere to the loss of moisture 
to the soil through the growth of weeds (see p. 386). This 
loss cannot be entirely prevented but it may certainly be 
very greatly reduced. Ordinarily, it is possible to prevent 
such loss in the summer-fallow and also in crops that are 
cultivated. But it is not possible to prevent it entirely in 
cultivated crops, although by a judicious system of till- 
age it may be kept so low that it may not be a serious 
loss. In humid areas, loss of moisture from this source is 
much less serious than in dry areas, but in either case 
the aim should be to prevent it. 

In semi-arid as in humid areas the shading of the soil, 
as already intimated, may under some conditions tend 
materially to reduce the amount of evaporation. The 
shade may be natural or artificial. Natural shade is 



110 DRY LAND FARMING 

that which is furnished by crops while they are growing 
or by vegetable matter in its decay on the soil which pro- 
duced it. Sorghum in its growth, and especially in the 
later stages of the same, furnishes a good illustration of 
the former, and leaves from trees of the latter. The shade 
thus furnished by sorghum in a considerable degree com- 
pensates for the loss of moisture by transpiration through 
the corn leaves. Such protection should be considered 
when determining the crops that should be grown. Straw 
from grain that is headed may furnish considerable shade, 
and even the stubble from grain that has been harvested 
may have an appreciable influence in reducing the loss 
of moisture that falls upon them. Artificial shade is that 
which comes from mulching, as by top dressing crops 
with straw in the early stages of growth ; by top dressing, 
especially pastures, with manure, or by using various 
waste vegetable matters in covering the soil above the 
roots of trees. Such measures, each in its place, may 
render substantial service in reducing the loss of moisture 
through evaporation. 

The seasonal use of moisture. — What may be termed 
the seasonal use of moisture considers adaptation in 
plants: (1) to winter rainfall; (2) to spring or early sum- 
mer rainfall, and (3) to rainfall conditions that are vari- 
able. Close attention to such adaptation has an im- 
portant bearing upon production in dry areas. 

When the precipitation occurs mainly in the winter, 
it is important that such crops shall be grown as will 
profit most by such winter rainfall. These crops include 
wheat, winter rye,' winter oats, winter vetch, winter bar- 
ley, and to a less extent winter speltz. The crops which 
are carried through the late autumn, winter and spring 
months, are thus enabled to utilize the moisture that falls 
in the seasons named, as spring sown crops could not util- 
lize the same. Fortunately, these winter crops are chiefly 
grown in climates, the severity of which does not preclude 



PLANT GROWTH IN DRY AREAS ill 

all growth in the winter season. If such crops were not 
grown in these areas, much of the winter precipitation 
would be lost to crops sown in the spring, hence the wis- 
dom, as it were, of giving crops sown in the autumn what 
may be termed the right of way under these conditions. 

When the precipitation is confined mainly to the 
spring months then spring crops should as a rule be 
chiefly sown. There will be difficulty in germinating au- 
tumn crops under the conditions named, and when these 
do not germinate in the autumn, the results are usually 
more or less uncertain. While, therefore, it would not 
be w^ise under such conditions to try to force the growth 
of autumn crops, certain spring crops may succeed un- 
usually well. 

In yet other conditions, the rainfall is variable and 
more or less fitful. This means that while the bulk of 
the precipitation falls mainly in the season for ordinary 
growth, in some instances it does not fall freely at such 
a time, but may fall later. Under these conditions cer- 
tain crops would fail outright during the dry period, 
while others would simply cease to grow for a time, and 
would again resume and complete growth when the rains 
come again. Where these conditions are frequent, the 
growth of such crops should be encouraged. Among 
these are certain sorghums, and buffalo and some other 
grasses. They feed not far distant from the surface, and 
are, therefore, easily accessible to the moisture when it 
comes. 

At certain times, moisture in the soil, the outcome 
of precipitation, is more dependable than at other times, 
though in few instances in dry areas is it absolutely de- 
pendable. The aim should be to grow plants that will 
make the bulk of their growth during the most depend- 
able season for moisture. Thus, when the rain usually 
ceases to fall for a time after July, as in Montana, early 
ripening oats are a safer crop than oats that are late 



112 DRY LAND FARMING 

ripening, and in some parts of Colorado where consider- 
able rain falls late rather than early, late potatoes are a 
surer crop than those that mature early. 

Root development. — Prominent among the functions 
of roots are: (1) supplying plants with water; ^2) fur- 
nishing them with the elements of growth, and (3) 
mooring them to the soil. Water is supplied to the 
plants almost entirely through the roots. 

These penetrate the soil variously, and at the tips 
of the rootlets are numerous minute hairs which are in 
a sense immersed in the water films that surround the 
soil germs, and they are active in absorbing it for the 
needs of the plant. The elements of growth that are held 
in solution by the soil water enter the plant with the 
water. Those elements indispensable to growth are 
nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, lime, magnesia and 
iron. Various other elements are helpful to growth, but 
not so indispensable as those that have been named. The 
way in which plants are moored to the soil by the roots 
needs no illustration. 

It has been frequently noticed that there is a close 
relation between the character of the root development 
and that of the top growth, hence in the dry areas it is 
specially important that good root growth is secured, that 
the plants may better endure severe conditions should 
they come. The root growth sought should be active, 
deep and strong. 

The more active that the growth of the roots is, the 
more quickly will they be distributed through the soil. 
The water which they will take up will be proportionate 
to the extent to which they ramify the soil. As water is 
taken up by the rootlets, it is drawn upon from all direc- 
tions to take the place of what has been removed. Growth 
in the plants will be proportionate as the supply of soil 
water is timely and generous, and this will be proportion- 
ate to the activity of the root growth, which in turn is de- 



PLANT GROWTH IN DRY AREAS 113 

dependent on the favorable conditions for growth viewed 
from the standpoint: (1) of the sufficiency of the water 
supply ; (2) of the abundance of the plant food, and (3) of 
the favorable character of the mechanical soil conditions 
that favor root penetration. Such activity in root growth 
is specially important in the early stages of growth. 

Relatively deep rooting is specially important in 
plants in dry areas. Such rooting enables them to secure 
increased moisture and also increased plant food. The 
moisture supply near the surface is usually greater in 
humid than in dry areas, hence the greater tendency in 
root growth in the latter to go down much more deeply 
than in the former. Corn roots in these have been known 
to ramify the soil in all directions to the depth of 7 or 8 
feet, and the roots of small cereals have been traced in 
the subsoil to the depth of 10 feet. These are of course 
extreme instances. They also find more easily digestible 
plant food than is usually found in the subsoils of 
humid areas. The generally favorable physical character 
of the subsoils of western areas for root penetration after 
they have been moistened by water favors deep growth 
in the roots, and this brings to the plants greater immuni- 
ty from the hazard that would otherwise come to them 
in time of drought. Where plants are irrigated they estab- 
lish a root system near the surface, as there they may 
find ample water to supply their needs. 

Strong root growth is also important, owing to the 
closeness of the relation that obtains between develop- 
ment in the roots and growth above ground. Especially 
is this relation important with reference to the production 
of seed. It has been claimed, and it would seem properly 
so, that there is some relation between strong root devel- 
opment and the abundant stooling that comes to the 
small cereals in dry areas. No measures, therefore, 
should be overlooked, when preparing the soil for seed. 



114 DRY LAND FARMING 

that are calculated to facilitate quick and strong root 
growth in the plants. 

The superior quality of dry farm crops. — It may be 
truthfully said of dry farm crops that: (1) they are richer 
in dry matter than other crops ; (2) are possessed of rela- 
tively more nutrition ; (3) have a high proportion of 
grain to the straw, and (4) they are usually higher in 
palatability. It would be a mistake, therefore, to meas- 
ure the feeding value of dry farm crops as compared with 
crops grown in humid areas on the basis of weight or 
production. 

Other things being equal, the food value of plants 
increases in the relative proportion of the dry matter 
which they contain. Widtsoe states that hay grown in 
humid regions has 12 to 20 per cent, of water, and in arid 
regions from 5 to 12 per cent. The average water con- 
tent in wheat as given by Wiley is 10.62 per cent. In 
some parts of the dry area it is not more than 8 to 9 
per cent. The less plentiful the water supply during 
growth, the higher will be the percentage of the dry mat- 
ter in the plants produced. 

The food nutrients in plants grown in dry areas are 
considerably more relatively than in the same plants 
grown in humid areas. More particularly is this true 
of the nitrogen content. Experiments conducted in Hol- 
land found that in a soil that contained 30 per cent, of 
water throughout the growing season, the protein per- 
centage in oats grown in the same was but 5.6 per cent., 
while the protein percentage in oats grown in a soil 
that contained but 10 per cent, of water during the same 
period was 10.6 per cent. Hard spring wheat grown in 
Utah has about 4 per cent, more protein than the same 
variety grown in the middle west. The reasons for such 
increase in the protein content in dry areas rest mainly 
on general climatic conditions, including a more or less 
limited water supply. Protein is most abundant in plants 



, PLANT GROWTH IN DRY AREAS 115 

when young, and in plants that mature relatively quickly, 
which they usually do in dry areas. 

The higher proportion of the grain to the straw in 
dry farm crops than in crops grown in humid areas is 
probably owing to the abundance of the food materials 
stored in the root system.. This also would seem to ac- 
count for the larger relative proportion of leaf growth 
found in the former. In normally healthy and suffi- 
ciently large straw, the yields of grain will usually 
decrease with increase in straw development above the 
requirements named. 

Crops grown in dry areas are usually more palatable 
than those grown in humid areas. This applies more 
especially to fodders. It arises in part from -the smaller 
stem growth in plants and the larger relative leaf pro- 
duction, and in part from the brighter curing of the 
same in the almost total absence of dew and rain in the 
harvest season. It is legitimate, therefore, to claim that 
the average feeding value of crops grown in dry areas 
is considerably above that of the same grown in humid 
areas. 

Weeds grown in dry areas. — Weed growth should 
be far less prevalent in dry than in humid areas, since 
the absence of abundant rainfall is so far unfavorable 
to the growth of weeds. This fact in itself places the 
farmer on a vantage ground that should enable him to 
maintain cleanness in his farm and crops far more easily 
than the same can be done by the farmer in humid 
areas. But what are the facts? With but few exceptions 
the farms become polluted with weed life in its various 
forms before they have been tilled many years. This fact 
proclaims to the world the lack of effort on the part of 
pioneer farmers to maintain cleanliness in their lands. 

In newly settled countries weeds are usually intro- 
duced in the seeds brought in for sowing, howsoever they 
may be propagated subsequently. They may come in 



116 DRY LAND FARMING 

the seeds of almost any kind of cereal that may be in- 
troduced, but to a greater extent they come in flax seed 
than in the seed of any other kind of grain. This is ow- 
ing to the greater difficulty in removing foul seeds from 
flax than from other cereals. That it is so is so far un- 
fortunate, for in semi-arid areas flax is more commonly 
sown as the first crop than any other cereal. In this way 
the land becomes polluted with weed seeds in many in- 
stances at the very outset. That it is so is peculiarly 
unfortunate. The homesteader begins his work on new 
and clean soil. With the exercise of proper vigilance it 
could be kept clean at least from many forms of perni- 
cious weed life for many years to come. 

The weed seeds that are most liable to come in the 
seeds of grain are wild mustard, wild oats and penny 
cress, but of course almost any kind of weed may be 
introduced in this way. Wild mustard and the wild oat 
are the most baneful among weeds that come to the dry 
farm. Foul seeds are also frequently introduced with 
alfalfa seed. Of these dodder is the most dangerous. 

After weeds have been introduced, they are distrib- 
uted by various methods. These include the following: 
(1) through the purchase and changing of seed; (2) 
through the medium of threshing machines ; (3) in the 
droppings of cattle, and (4) by the agency of birds. But 
the most potent agency by far in the distribution of 
weeds after they have been introduced, especially in the 
Plains region, is wind. The extent to which this agency 
may scatter the seeds of some kinds of weeds is in a 
sense without limit. The seeds of the Russian thistle, 
tumbling mustard and other weeds of the tumbling or- 
der, may be thus carried to distances that are in a sense 
incredible, nor is there any way of guarding against such 
introduction. Certain styles of wire fencing are in some 
sense a safeguard but not in all instances, as the weeds 
may pile up to such an extent that they form an inclined 



PLANT GROWTH IN DRY AREAS 117 

plane over which those that come later roll, and speed on 
their way to farther distribution. Fortunately nearly 
all this class of weeds is short lived or at least compara- 
tively so, and they are more easily destroyed than some 
other forms of weed life. Wild oats and mustard and 
other seeds are frequently carried by the winds from one 
farm to another that happens to lie adjacent to it on 
the leeward side. Fortunately water is not an important 
agent in carrying weed seeds in dry areas as it frequently 
is in humid areas and also wherever irrigation is prac- 
tised. 

Certain forms of weed life are more difficult of eradi- 
cation in dry than in humid areas. This is especially true 
of weeds the seeds of which have much oil, as for in- 
stance wild mustard and penny cress. The small amount 
of moisture relatively that is in the soil tends to 
prolong vitality in the seeds. Because of this, weeds will 
grow after longer periods of burial in such soils than if 
buried in soils more humid. Of course as long as seeds 
retain vitality they remain ready to grow when subjected 
to favorable conditions for growth. 

It shoulder be easier nevertheless to maintain clean- 
liness in farms in dry than in humid areas, owing to the 
character of the rotation. The farmer in dry areas is 
compelled to give much attention to summer-fallowing 
the land, or to growing cultivated crops, or to both, in or- 
der to secure the requisite amount of moisture. If this 
work is faithfully and intelligently performed, and 
proper attention is given to the cleaning of the seed 
used, it should be quite practicable to keep farms prac- 
tically free from noxious weeds. Nowhere else where 
farming is conducted, should the farms be so free from 
weeds as in dry areas. 

Grain plants volunteering. — The tendency in cereals 
to volunteer is ever present in dry areas. Volunteer 
grain means grain that grows from seed that has shat- 



118 DRY LAND FARMING 

tered previous to or during the process of harvesting. If 
grain, in some varieties at least, is not cut promptly when 
ripe, a certain proportion of the kernels may shatter 
through the swaying of the winds. The plump filling 
of the grain in dry areas favors shattering. The volun- 
teering of grain in dry areas may give the farmers 
more trouble and labor than the noxious weeds. 

The season for such volunteering is of course the 
season of the harvesting of the crop. In addition to the 
shattering of the seed, heads are scattered during the 
harvesting process. The weather subsequently is so dry 
that these, in many instances, do not germinate in the 
autumn. They are buried in the soil by the disc or plow, 
and the next season they germinate and grow up amid 
the crop that follows, providing such a crop is sown the 
following year. If the crop is of a different species, there 
is admixing in the same, as for instance wheat and oats. 
If of the same species but differing in variety, the varie- 
ties become badly mixed. If of the same variety, the 
volunteer plants growing up amid the plants from the 
seed sown so increases the number of the plants as to 
frequently reduce the yields. To such an extent does 
grain thus volunteer in some instances that a fair re- 
turn in grain is sometimes reaped without sowing any 
seed, and even without stirring the ground with any im- 
plement. Such crops are more frequent in the case of 
winter wheat and winter rye than in that of a spring 
cereal. 

The evils that arise from this source will be readily 
apparent. It greatly increases the tendency in grains 
to mix, and therefore increases correspondingly the diffi- 
culty of maintaining purity in grain. The loss resulting 
may not be serious in grains that are to be fed to live 
stock, at least in some instances. But it may not be so 
with grains that are to be marketed. Suppose, for in- 
stance, that winter rye or some soft variety of wheat 



PIvANT GROWTH IN DRY AREAS 119 

grows numerously in a crop of hard winter wheat, the 
price paid will be lowered in proportion to the extent 
to which such admixture is present. The difficulty found 
in obtaining pure seed in dry areas is largely the out- 
come of such volunteering of grains. 

The volunteering of grains may be greatly lessened : 
(1) by early and prompt cutting of the crop ; (2) by 
careful handling of the same when cut, and (3) by the 
gleaning of sheep and swine amid the stubbles. The 
early and prompt cutting of the grain will prevent shat- 
tering in the same to a very considerable extent, but it 
will not in all instances entirely prevent it, providing the 
grain is allowed to become sufficiently mature before it is 
cut. Owing to the shortness of the grain crops in some 
instances, the loss of heads is greater in the harvesting 
process than it would be in the case of grains that were 
of greater length. This loss is considerably increased if 
the sheaves are handled in a careless manner. Sheep 
or swine may subsequently gather many heads, but they 
cannot gather them all, hence even under the most 
favorable conditions there will be some loss from the 
shattering and falling of heads in the harvesting process. 

The remedies for the volunteering of grain or 
rather for the harmful influences that may result, are 
the following: (1) summer-fallowing the land with suffi- 
cient frequency ; (2) growing a cultivated crop with suffi- 
cient frequency, and (3) modifying the rotation. The 
frequency of the summer-fallowing will depend in a 
considerable degree : (1) on the amount of the precipi- 
tation ; (2) on the rotation, and (3) on whether the crops 
are grown for feeding or for being marketed. The 
greater the precipitation, the less the necessity for the 
summer-fallow in order to prevent volunteering, for 
the more that the rainfall is, especially in the autumn, 
the more will the grain sprout at that season, and when 
thus sprouted it may be destroyed by subsequent cul- 



120 DRY LAND FARMING 

tivation. But the summer-fallow even will not be effec- 
tive in destroying volunteer grain, because of its deep 
rooting, unless some implement is used with sufficient 
frequency that will cut off the plants below the surface of 
the ground. The reasons that relate to the frequency with 
which the land should be summer-fallowed to destroy 
such grain will apply equally to the growing of cultivated 
crops. But when growing the latter, some hand work 
may be necessary to complete the work. The less fre- 
quently that the same varieties are grown in succession, 
the less will be the tendency to admixing in the grains. 
The harm from volunteering may be much lessened by 
observing such practise in the absence of the summer- 
fallow and also of the cultivated crop, when alfalfa is one 
of the crops that is introduced into the rotation. When 
the summer-fallow or the cultivated crop or the two in 
conjunction, that is in alternation, are brought between 
each two grain crops, the harm from grains volunteer- 
ing may be entirely prevented. 



CHAPTER VII 
PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 

In the cultivation of soils in the semi-arid regions 
the plow in one or the other of its forms will always 
have a foremost place. But that place will always be 
less important relatively than in humid areas. In the 
latter the plow is almost invariably used when preparing 
the land for a crop. In the former the disc is very fre- 
quently used instead of the plow after the land has 
once been broken with the plow. 

Prominent among the objects sought from plowing 
are: (1) breaking up the land to admit moisture and air; 
(2) making a seed bed in which to plant the crop ; (3) 
cleaning the land. Other benefits follow, though not so 
important, perhaps, as the former. Prominent among 
these is bringing the land into that condition which 
makes it possible to prevent the escape of moisture by 
the nature of the cultivation given to it subsequently on 
and near the surface. 

Much of the untilled area in the dry region is cov- 
ered with a shrubby growth consisting mainly of what is 
termed sage brush. This is so named doubtless from the 
sage-like odor which escapes from the bushes and the 
sage-like taste of the stems and leaves. Millions and mil- 
lions of acres of land in the western states are covered 
by those shrubs. They grow from the height of a few 
inches to several feet, as many as five or six in some in- 
stances. They usually grow at a little distance from one 
another and some native grasses may grow between the 
plants. The abundant presence of these plants is looked 
upon as an indication of a fertile soil, and a tall and 
vigorous growth in the same as an indication of rain- 
fall more copious than the average. 



122 DRY LAND FARMING 

It will be at once apparent that this growth and other 
forms that mingle with it, as "rabbit brush" and *'grease- 
wood," will prove an obstacle in the way of the plow in 
proportion as it is abundant and strong. In some in- 
stances it is grubbed out with the mattock. This meth- 
od is usually followed by the small farmer whose avail- 
able horse labor may not be equal to the task of drawing 
a plow through the brush. Where the brush is not 
over strong and the power is sufficient, strong plows are 
used in breaking the land and uprooting the brush in 
the one operation. The shrubs thus loosened are thrown 
into heaps and burned. 

Various devices have been tried with more or less 
success to clean the land from brush before it is plowed. 
One of these consists of two railroad rails fastened to- 
gether with strong chains. The rails are drawn by hitch- 
ing at both ends, so that the whole length of the rail 
is drawn against the brushes so as to break them oflf 
or pull them out. In some instances but one rail is 
used and preferably bent forward at the ends. If. used 
straight it is necessary to attach a small platform be- 
hind it and weighted to keep the rail from tipping. It 
is necessary in some instances to drive the rails over 
the land several times, and it may be further necessary 
to do some hand grubbing to complete the work. Other 
devices have been used for pulling out the shrubs, 
especially when they are of large size. Success with 
these thus far has only been partial. Where larger trees, 
as the mesquite, juniper and cedar grow, grubbing is 
necessary. 

On other areas, more especially in the Plains coun- 
try, the soil is more or less covered with grass of differ- 
ent degrees of density. The power called for in break- 
ing up this land increases with the density of the sod, 
other things being equal. But where the sod is dense 
the rainfall is more copious than where the opposite 



PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 123 

conditions exist. Because of this it may take more power 
in some instances to break up a sod with less of density 
than would suffice for sod of greater density. On yet 
other areas the land may be so encumbered with stones 
lying on and near the surface that it is necessary to re- 
move these before any attempt is made to plow the land. 
Such land may have a forbidding look to the land seeker, 
but it frequently happens that the obstructions referred 
to lie only on or near the surface and that when once re- 
moved the soil may make excellent farming land. 

The ultimate object of plowing is to put the soil in 
proper condition for growing a crop. While the objects 
sought from plowing are virtually the same in kind in 
semi-arid and humid regions, they differ much in degree. 
In the former the breaking up of the soil that it will 
more readily admit moisture is much more important 
relatively than in the latter. In the former a carefully 
prepared seed bed is more important than in the latter, 
and in the latter the plow renders greater service in 
destroying weeds because of their relatively greater 
prevalence. 

The unbroken soil of the prairie is dry, and because 
it is dry it is usually hard to break with the plow. It 
would probably be correct to say that the larger portion 
of the soil of the semi-arid country has not been wet 
down to a greater depth than 3 to 4 feet at any time 
before it was broken with the plow, and into much 
of it water has never penetrated thus deeply. This dry 
condition is the outcome of a light precipitation, but to 
an even greater extent it results from the relatively small 
proportion that enters the soil of that which does fall. 
When the soil is broken with the plow, the water that 
falls may enter it readily, and the more deeply that 
the land is thus loosened, at least to a certain limit, 
the more moisture does it absorb and the more deeply 
does it penetrate the soil. This explains why the sub- 



124 DRY LAND FARMING 

soil in semi-arid areas that are properly cultivated is 
much more moist than it was before the land had been 
broken. 

But breaking up the land admits the air as well as 
the moisture. This of course aids in preparing the soil 
for becoming a suitable home for the roots of plants. 
When air penetrates a moist soil, it aids in bringing about 
mechanical and chemical changes that prepare food for 
plants. These processes come practically to a standstill 
when the soil is virtually destitute of moisture, or when 
it has an excess of the same. In semi-arid regions ex- 
cessive aeration is to be carefully guarded against. It 
is excessive when it aids in the removal of moisture 
that is needed from the top soil. To prevent- this as far 
as it may be possible, the soil is usually compressed or 
firmed soon after it has been plowed. 

On land that has never been plowed, it would not 
be easy to form a seed bed. It could of course be done 
with the disc, but to make it thus would involve much 
labor, and it would not be satisfactory when made. The 
plow alone does not form a seed bed, but it puts the 
land in a condition so that the work can be completed 
with the aid of other implements. A good seed bed in 
dry areas should be: (1) fine and mellow on the top two 
or three inches of soil and firm but not hard below ; (2) 
as free as possible from weed seeds and the presence 
of perennial weed growth, and (3) moist enough to ger- 
minate the seeds of crops that are planted on the soil. 
To insure these ends the plowing must be done at a cer- 
tain time and in a certain way, but after the land has 
been plowed the roller, the harrow and sometimes the 
disc must usually be more or less used. 

After ground has been broken with the plow, the 
seed bed is frequently prepared by the aid of the disc 
and harrow only. This plan is generally followed after 
cultivated crops, and for the reason chiefly that moisture 



PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 125 

may thus be conserved to a greater extent than if the 
land were plowed. 

In humid areas there is usually a very considerable 
aftergrowth of weeds and other plants amid the stubbles 
of fields that have grown grain. This does not usually 
follow to anything like the same extent in dry areas, 
but even in the latter weed growth is frequently more or 
less troublesome. The plow, better than any other im- 
plement, buries weeds that are thus in process of growth, 
and prevents them from further seeding. For this rea- 
son among others it is frequently the aim to plow the 
land as soon as practicable after the previous grain 
crop has been removed. 

The time for plowing. — Plowing may be done at any 
season in humid climates where the frost does not hinder 
the work. It is not so in arid or semi-arid areas. In 
some of these the ground cannot be plowed at certain 
seasons without great labor and the expenditure of much 
power, because of the overdryness of the soil. In such 
areas the chief of the seasons for plowing are: (1) the 
spring; (2) the summer, and (3) the autumn. 

In the semi-arid country spring plowing is very com- 
monly practised more or less on almost every farm. The 
advantages from spring plowing are: (1) The work is 
then more easily done than in the autumn as a rule be- 
cause of the greater moisture content in the soil. (2) 
Where snow falls in wind-swept areas more moisture 
enters the soil on stubble land when the snow melts, 
as the stubbles have aided in holding the snow. (3) The 
homesteader may grow some crops the year that he lo- 
cates, although no land had been plowed the previous 
year. 

The disadvantages from spring plowing are: (1) 
The crop cannot be planted in time, or at least much of it 
cannot. (2) The soil has not had time to settle upon it- 
self before it is sown, hence the lower section of the 



126 DRY LAND FARMING 

seed bed is not firm enough to grow the crop planted on 
it in best form, should a dry season follow. (3) The 
seed bed is less warm for early sown crops, hence early 
growth in these will be less vigorous than on autumn 
plowed land. (4) No time has been given between the 
plowing and the sowing for the unlocking of inert plant 
food through weathering influences. In dry areas crops 
will suffer much more as a rule on spring than on au- 
tumn plowed land, should the rainfall be less than nor- 
mal. Among the crops that will be the least harmed un- 
der these conditions when sown or planted on spring 
plowed land, are flax, corn and potatoes. Where rain 
falls chiefly in the late autumn and winter months, 
the aim should be to grow winter rather than spring 
crops. If the latter are grown, the only hope of success 
comes from planting them early. 

When land is plowed in the summer it is- for fallow 
rather than for growing a crop that season. The best time 
for such plowing is dependent to a considerable degree on 
the time of the greatest precipitation. When rain falls 
chiefly in the late autumn and winter, the time for plow- 
ing fallow land should begin as early as such plowing 
is practicable, even in the autumn and winter months, 
that it may open the soil for the easier penetration of 
moisture into it when it falls. The plowing of such 
fallow land should not take place later than early spring, 
as subsequently much of the moisture would have es- 
caped from it and more would not fall to take the place 
of what had been lost. Where the bulk of the precipi- 
tation falls during the growing period, as in much of the 
Plains country, the best time to plow fallow land as a rule 
is in the months of May and June, as then it usually has 
the largest amount of moisture in it. The plowing is 
then more easily done than at any other time. Much 
of the moisture then in the soil may be retained by judi- 
cious management, and it may thus be made to aid the 



PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 137 

crop that follows. When the plowing of fallow land 
is deferred until much of the moisture has left the soil, 
the effect upon the crop that follows will be proportion- 
ately adverse. In the Plains country, land for fallow, 
or, as it is frequently called, summer tillage, may be 
plowed in the spring, but there is seldom opportunity 
for such plowing, as then it is that the crops must be 
planted. When land can be broken in May and June, 
a strong argument is found in favor of such breaking 
in the fact that sod broken at a season when the grasses 
are succulent rots much more quickly than if broken 
when the vegetation is dry and dead. 

The advantages from plowing in the autumn include 
the following: (1) When the work is done at that season 
the crops may be sown quite early in the spring, which 
gives them the benefit of all the moisture that falls 
subsequently. (2) The turning up of the soil exposes it 
to all the benefit that comes from weathering influences, 
as sun, air, rain and frost. The soil is thus mellowed on 
the surface, which makes easy the forming of a good seed 
bed. The liberated fertility is thus made easily accessi- 
ble to the young plants. (3) The soil has time to 
settle on itself, thus giving the necessary firmness to 
the lower section of the seed bed. (4) Opportunity is 
thus furnished for the entrance into the soil of the 
precipitation that falls on it in the interval between plow- 
ing and sowing the crop. (5) When ground is thus 
plowed in the fall the opportunity is furnished to harrow 
or disc it as soon as this may be done in the spring 
without injury to the land, a process that will quite ef- 
fectively prevent the loss of moisture. 

The disadvantages of fall plowing include: (1) The 
difficulty that is frequently found in doing the work be- 
cause of the lack of moisture in the soil. This applies 
more to breaking than to stubble land, but it applies to 
all land previously broken and plowed shallow. To plow 



128 DRY LAND FARMING 

such land to the proper depth calls for the use of much 
power, which means that it is relatively expensive. (2) 
Land thus plowed does not hold the snow as stubble land 
does, hence the moisture that melted snow brings to 
stubble land when not too much frost-locked does not 
come to plowed land to the same extent. On the other 
hand, should the precipitation come in the form of rain 
with but little frost in the soil, it will penetrate the 
plowed soil much more readily than unplowed soil. (3) 
Should stubble land be cloddy when it is plowed in the 
autumn, and but little precipitation fall during th'e 
winter, the lower section of the seed bed would be in a 
very poor condition for promoting growth because of its 
lack of density. 

From what has been said it will be apparent that 
the balance of argument favors summer and autumn 
plowing. The practise of the best farmers recognizes this 
fact, and it is coming to be more and more recognized 
as time goes on. The plowing of wet soils has not 
been discussed, and for the reason chiefly that in the 
arid and semi-arid areas the soil is seldom too wet to 
plow. This does not apply to all soils, as those affected 
by seepage water, or to soils known as "adobe" or "gum- 
bo." The former should be drained before they are tilled. 
The latter must not be plowed when unduly wet, or it 
will be impossible to pulverize them subsequently. On 
the other land, if left until unduly dry it is virtually im- 
possible to overtake the work. 

The depth to plow. — Testimony is practically a unit 
that lands should be plowed deeply in dry areas. The ar- 
guments in favor of deep plowing include the following : 
(1) It increases the storage capacity of the soil to receive 
water that falls upon it and in proportion to the depth 
of the plowing. Should a soil be broken to the depth of 
only 3 inches and should a heavy rain fall on the same, 
the soil would only absorb the rain quickly to the depth 



PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 129 

to which it had been plowed. *" The excess of the rain 
above what the 3 inches of soil will absorb must run 
away over the surface, and in doing so it will carry away 
the finer and more valuable portions of the soil in propor- 
tion as such excess of precipitation is present. Buffum 
has affirmed that soils which will hold 20 per cent, of 
moisture will not store more than 7-10 inches of rain 
when plowed 3 inches deep, nor more than 1.4 inches 
when plowed 6 inches deep, but when plowed 9 inches 
,they will store more than 2 inches of rain. Water thus 
caught will sink down slowly into the lower soil 
and will thus tend to equalize its movements and distri- 
bution. (2) It improves the tilth and the producing 
powers of soils. These results follow from the pulver- 
izing influences brought about by the deep stirring of 
the land and from the increase in aeration, warmth, and 
in the activity of bacterial agents in the soil. (3) It en- 
larges the feeding ground for the roots of plants, because 
of the greater ease with which their roots may find food 
in a soil thus broken and stirred. (4) Lifting with the 
winds may to some extent be reduced because of the 
more pronounced character of the depressions between 
the furrows. But too much must not be made of this ad- 
vantage, as it is frequently necessary to obliterate such 
furrows soon after plowing by the use of implements of 
tillage. 

The depth to plow will vary with the soil. It should 
seldom be less than 6 inches or more than 10 inches. 
When plowing deeply, the timeliness for this and the cost 
of the same should not be lost sight of. It may cost 
less in one instance to plow soil 7 to 8 inches than to 
plow it 4 inches in another instance, because of a diflfer- 
ence in the moisture content in the soil. Deep plowing 
is never more opportunely done than in connection with 
the plowing of fallow land, providing the latter is plowed 
at that season when it has the largest amount of mois- 



130 DRY LAND FARMING 

ture in it. The work can then be done with a minimum 
expenditure of power, and there is time for weathering 
influences to become operative before the planting of the 
crop that follows. The aim should be also to plow the 
land more deeply when preparing it for certain crops 
than when preparing it for other crops. Deep plowing 
is specially beneficial to alfalfa, corn, root crops and 
trees. As a rule gradual deepening of the plowing is 
preferable to sudden deepening, as it gives greater op- 
portunity for weathering influences to operate on the 
raw soil. It is also more important relatively that land 
shall be plowed deeply in the fall than in the spring, as 
the soil has more time to settle firmly below than if 
spring plowed. 

While in dry areas the aim should be to plow deep- 
ly on average soil, there are some exceptions to the 
method which plows deeply. These apply only to cer- 
tain soils and soil conditions. Land should not be plowed 
deeply (1) where the soil is shallow or poor below, or 
where the elements of fertility are largely in an unavail- 
able form ; especially should this be avoided where too 
much lime or gypsum lies near the surface. The gradual 
deepening of a soil possessed of a reasonable amount of 
fertility, though largely in the inert form, will greatly im- 
prove it in time. (2) Where the conditions present ren- 
der the work over-costly and difficult. These conditions 
are such as relate to soils hard and dry, to the use of 
plows not suited to such work, and to the lack of strength 
in the teams that do the work. Were it not for the 
extra cost, it would be better to plow deeply even when 
soils are dry and hard, especially in the autumn, but 
there is a limit to the cost of plowing, beyond which 
it may be unwise to go. Furthermore, when dry land 
is plowed deeply, even in the autumn, there may be 
seasons in which the dry soil thus loosened may not wet 
down far enough to become sufficiently impacted for the 



PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 131 

proper growing of the next crop. But deep plowing is to 
be preferred in the autumn when it can be done, as, 
should rain come, many western soils can take up 40 
per cent, of moisture. One-third of that amount rightly 
used will grow a good crop. (3) Where plowing is done 
in the late spring and a crop is to be grown on it that 
season, as the crop will start readily in the top soil thus 
loosened and the roots find firm soil below. 

The depth of the plowing in dry areas should not be 
uniform, that is it should be deeper for some purposes 
than others. If land is plowed uniformly at the same 
depth from season to season the soil at the bottom of the 
furrow becomes hardened by the smoothing and com- 
pressing action of the sole of the plow and the tramping 
of the horses. This condition is unfavorable to capillary 
action. When land is broken deeply, as it should gen- 
erally be broken, it will be better in some instances to 
plow say two inches shallower the next time, so tha^ 
the buried sod may have longer time to decay before it 
is again exposed to drying atmospheric influences. The 
plan of plowing sod land shallow and then backsetting 
it later in the season by plowing it more deeply, has 
found favor in many of the provinces of Canada and in 
some portions of the north v/estern states. 

The kind of plow to use. — Plows as adapted to work 
in dry areas may be divided into three classes. These 
are: (1) the mold-board plow; (2) the disc plow, and 
(3) the deep tilling machine. Of the first two there are 
several modifications. 

The mold-board plow cuts the furrow slice and turns 
it over. Owing to the shape of the mold-board, it packs 
the furrow^ slice more or less, thus causing it to lie more 
or less smoothl}^ against the furrow previously turned. 
A plow with a long mold-board is best for some kinds 
of breaking. One with a short mold-board and pos- 
sessed of abrupt curvative aids to some extent in 



132 



DRY LAND FARMING 



breaking up and pulverizing the land which it turns. 
For hard clays and some other soils the steel mold-board 
is probably better than the chilled. It should have in- 




terchangeable lays or shares, which must be sharpened 
occasionally if the work is to be efficiently done. On 
hard soils cast shares may be cheaper. These, of 



very 



PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 133 

course, cannot be sharpened. Because of the extensive 
areas that are cultivated in dry regions, the sulky, that 
is, the riding plow, is most commonly used. The mold- 
board plow will do better work than the disc where the 
conditions are favorable for using it, but the disc plow 
has also an important place. 

The disc plow consists of one or more large discs set 
at an angle that will turn over the furrow slice, but less 
perfectly than the mold-board plow. It has been found 
preferable to the mold-board plow under the following 
conditions: (1) In heavy clay soils that are hard to 
plow and that are more or less liable to become sticky. 
(2) In plowing land baked so hard with the sun that it 
is difficult to keep the mold-board plow in the soil. (3) 
In the first plowing of sage brush land when the brush 
is strong. (4) In plowing stony land which could not 
be plowed with the mold-board plow without much diffi- 
culty. The disc plow is frequently used when plowing 
stubble land and old land generally. It is lighter of 
draught than the mold-board plow. It does not bury 
grass or weeds so completely as the latter. The deep 
tilling machine is a plow with two discs. The one in 
front cuts down to a certain depth and turns the soil. 
The one in the rear cuts down more deeply and turns 
the soil from a lower stratum, inverting it, in part at least, 
above the furrow slice first inverted. Among the 
advantages of this plow are the following: (1) It is 
light of draught relatively in proportion to the depth 
to which it will plow. (2) It may be used in plow- 
ing ground when it is so dry that it could not be 
plowed with the moldboard plow. (3) It makes it pos- 
sible to plow the soil to any reasonable depth. (4) It 
aids materially in pulverizing the soil which it plows. 
This plow will probably render most excellent service in 
much of the dry area, but its introduction is too recent 



134 DRY LAND FARMING 

to justify the statement as to the relative importance- of 
the place that it will occupy among the plows used. 

There is a place also for the lister plow in dry areas. 
It is a plow which throws the soil out both ways. It is 
used chiefly in connection with planting corn. It opens 
furrows only where the corn is to be planted. The seed 
is drilled in the bottom of the furrow, either by a drill 
attachment to the lister, or by a separate drill. Corn 
planted thus deeply will stand drought better than when 
planted in the ordinary way, but planting it thus, is in 
some instances attended with some hazard (see p. 279). 

Power to use in plowing. — The three kinds of power 
used in plowing at the present time are: (1) farm ani- 
mals, especially horses and mules ; (2) steam power, and 
(3) gasoline power. Electricity generated by mountain 
streams may yet become a source of power in conduct- 
ing some of the operations of the farm. 

After the land has been broken, and even when 
breaking it, horses and mules will be used to a far greater 
extent in the future, as in the past, by the average farmer, 
than any other source of power. The more diversified 
the character of the farming, the greater will be the 
necessity for using such power, for reasons that will be 
manifest. The new settler may find it very expensive 
to use this class of power until he can grow the food 
called for to maintain the animals that do the work. Ox 
labor will usually be found cheaper than the labor of 
horses or mules when breaking land, a fact that has 
apparently been almost entirely overlooked during recent 
years. 

Steam traction engines are frequently used in break- 
ing land, especially when areas large and long are to be 
broken. Where all the conditions are favorable, as when 
coal and water do not have to be drawn too far, the steam 
engine may prove satisfactory when breaking land, but 
subsequently the great weight of the engine makes it 



PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 



135 



costly to propel it over the loose soil. In some instances 
the compaction resulting from the great weight of the 
wheels may do harm. In some countries of Europe the 
engines are stationary and are placed at each end of the 
field. Plows, harrows and seeders are drawn over the 
land- by the aid of cables. The comparative merits of 
these and of traction engines has not yet been proved in 
America. 




BREAKING WITH STEAM POWER, STARK COUNTY. NORTH DAKOTA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 



Engines propelled by gasoline and kerosene power 
will probably be used to a greater extent on the dry 
farm than those propelled by steam, especially after the 
land has been broken. But these also in some instances 
compress the land overmuch, through the weight of 
their ponderous wheels. Yet again in other instances, 
such compression may be beneficial, as when moisture 



136 DRY LAND FARMING 

is unduly lacking. Where such power is used the rea- 
sonably small engine is to be preferred on the average 
farm. It is not so unwieldy as the more ponderous en- 
gine, and can therefore be used under a greater variety 
of conditions. 

When steam or gasoline power is used in plowing, 
the aim should be to smooth the land by rolling or in 
some other way compressing it, and to form on it a dust 
mulch with the aid of a harrow, the plowing, smoothing 
and harrowing being completed in the one operation. 
The plan which turns over large areas of land in the early 
summer and leaves them thus all season without further 
working is to be condemned in unmeasured terms. 

Although the use of steam and especially gasoline 
power is rapidly extending in the semi-arid regions, and 
especially in the breaking up of the prairie, the exact 
place that these will occupy in the future in the farming 
of these areas cannot now be forecasted. The behavior 
of those engines in the future cannot be gauged by their 
behavior in the past, as many of those who have manned 
them have not been sufficiently skilled to get from them 
all the work that they are capable of doing. For a simi- 
lar reason the breakages have been overfrequent and 
costly. While there is certainly a place for the use of 
such power on the farm, that place has not as yet been 
definitely determined. That ground may be plowed and 
pulverized and the crop sown on it by the aid of such 
power cannot be questioned. The relative cost, however, 
as compared with horse labor, is yet an open question. 

Good plowing in dry areas. — It is important that 
plowing shall be well done under all conditions, because 
of the important bearing that such plowing has on the 
retention of soil moisture. When land is plowed shallow, 
the furrow slice being imperfectly turned, and there are 
many skips in the plowing, it will be at ©nee apparent 
that a 2:ood seed bed cannot be made on such land. In 



PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 137 

the absence of a good seed bed, crop production is doubly 
hazardous in a dry country. 

Good plowing may be defined as follows: (1) a 
straight and evenly turned furrow of uniform depth ; 
(2) a furrow so turned that it will lie well over against 
the furrow previously turned, so that air spaces under- 
neath will be excluded to the greatest extent possible ; (3) 
plowing in which skips are entirely absent and in which 
the cut and cover method has no place ; (4) plowing 
which completely buries all rubbish and grass and in 
which the furrow slice is crushed more or less ; (5) plow- 
ing of such depth as is best suited to the conditions under 
which the work is done and to the needs of the crop 
which is to follow. 

If good work is to be done, careful attention must 
be given to the condition of the land and of the plows. 
Good work cannot be done on land plowed overwet or 
over'dry. Some soils, especially those known as gumbo, 
will become so hard if they are plowed when overwet 
that they cannot be pulverized properly when preparing 
a seed bed, even though much labor should be expended 
on the same. When lands are cloddy, it is scarcely pos- 
sible to do good work when plowing them. It is also 
greatly important that the plows shall be kept in first- 
class condition. They should be kept free from rust 
by housing and proper oiling when they are not in use, 
and by keeping the shares sharp and in shape when they 
are being used. Usually it will result in better work 
when the furrow slice is cut rather less than the full 
width that the plow can cut. 

Subsoil plowing in dry areas. — In the true sense of 
the term subsoil plowing means a loosening or breaking 
up of the soil to a greater or lesser distance below the 
depth to which land is ordinarily plowed. The land so 
loosened is not brought any nearer to the surface. The 
term has been improperly applied to the process which 



138 DRY LAND FARMING 

brings up soil from below the sole of the furrow made 
by the first plowing and places it on top of the furrow 
slice first made. It is simply deep plowing, the addi- 
tional depth being gained by running the plow twice in 
the same place, the second plowing being deeper than 
the first. Where the elements in the subsoil are very 
similar in kind and condition to those in the top soil, 
the practise is to be commended, but where the food ele- 
ments in the lower soil are in a raw and undigested con- 
dition, the practise is to be strongly condemned, as it 
will certainly be followed by a lessened production. The 
inert plant food thus brought to the surface cannot be 
taken up by plants until it has been made available by 
what are termed weathering influences. 

There are different kinds of subsoil plows. One of 
these simply tears through the lower soil much after the 
fashion of a curved harrow tooth. It consists of a steel 
bar attached to and running below the plow that turns 
the top furrow. In other instances it consists of a wedge- 
like shoe attached to the lower part of the steel bar, 
which is drawn forward through the lower soil. In 
many instances the subsoiler is not attached to the or- 
dinary plow, but more commonly it runs in the furrow 
made by the former. 

The objects sought in subsoiling are: (1) to deepen 
the area which the roots of plants may readily penetrate 
in search of food; (2) to increase the capacity of soils 
for receiving and storing water more readily that comes 
in the form of precipitation; (3) to facilitate the libera- 
tion of plant food in the lower soil by allowing air and 
water the more readily to penetrate it. It will be readily 
apparent, therefore, that the benefits resulting from sub- 
soiling will be largely dependent on the character of the 
soil and especially the subsoil, also the character of the 
crops as deep or shallow rooted. Subsoiling is not help- 
ful in very open subsoils, as in these it would only tend 



PLOWING IN DRY AREAS 139 

to promote excessive leaching. It will not avail in iin- 
drained soils until they are drained, if they hold an ex- 
cessive amount of water for any considerable period. 
The necessity for subsoiling in dry areas and the benefits 
to be derived from it have called forth opinions that are 
more or less conflicting. Many authorities look upon it 
as a necessity in nearly all the semi-arid region. They 
lose sight, apparently, of the cost of subsoiling. In much 
of the semi-arid region the limited rainfall does not call 
for a great depth of stirred soil to take in all that falls. 
When once thus absorbed, the water can usually go 
downward with sufficient readiness in the average west- 
ern soils. If the connection between the upper and lower 
soils is too much disturbed, the upward movement of 
moisture will be -hindered until the disturbed soil has 
time to settle again. 

As a rule, the most efifective subsoiling mechanical 
in character is that which stirs the soil more and more 
deeply by a gradual process, rather than by stirring it to 
a very considerable depth at once. Usually the neces- 
sity for going more deeply than 12 to 18 inches would 
not seem necessary for ordinary cropping. For alfalfa 
and also for field roots, it may sometimes prove helpful 
to go more deeply. 

When alfalfa comes to be generally grown in dry 
areas, subsoiling mechanically Avould seem to be un- 
necessary. It would be difficult to conceive of subsoil- 
ing more complete than that furnished by the roots of a 
good stand of alfalfa in their decay. They burrow deeply 
in the subsoil during the process of growth. In their 
decay they leave it honeycombed with avenues leading 
downward. Moisture can readily go down in these and 
form a reserve for later growth. The process does not 
cost the grower anything. 

The frequency of the plowing. — The frequency with 
which land should be plowed will depend to some extent 



140 DRY LAND FARMING 

on the way in which the land is worked, to some extent 
on the season, and to some extent on the annual precipi- 
tation. The aim of the farmer in humid areas is to mul- 
tiply the number of plowings to the greatest extent prac- 
ticable. The aim of the farmer in dry areas should 
rather be to plow as seldom as will answer the needs of 
the system of cropping followed. The more frequently 
that the former plows the more effectively does he de- 
stroy weeds and the more perfect is the tilth secured. 
The more frequently that the latter plows his land, the 
more difficult is it for him to retain moisture in it. 

When land is first broken the aim should be not to 
turn up the buried sod again, until it has reached a some- 
what advanced stage of decay. The sod will rot more 
quickly down in the bottom of the furrow than when 
exposed to the dry air. This may be accomplished in 
two ways. By one method the land, if plowed for the 
second crop, will be plowed less deeply than for the 
first crop, providing the same is practicable. By the 
second it is prepared by discing fall or spring or both 
seasons. A seed bed thus prepared is much more free 
from sods than one made amid upturned and imperfectly 
decayed sods. 

When plowing land for fallow, the aim should be 
to plow but once during the season. The care of the 
fallow should be done with other implements than the 
plow. Every additional plowing given to the land adds 
to the difficulty of firming it sufficiently to prevent the 
undue escape of moisture. A second plowing is allow- 
able should the weeds prevail to such an extent that 
other implements of tillage may not be able to cope with 
them effectively. It is also necessary when a green crop 
is grown to be buried in conjunction with the fallowing 
process, to add plant food and humus to the soil. 

There are certain times also when discing will be 
preferable to plowing, but so much depends upon con- 



PLOWING IN DRY 4REAS 141 

ditions that it is not easily possible to lay down definite 
rules that will serve as safe guides to the farmer. Usu- 
ally land may be prepared for a crop by discing with 
less labor than by plowing, and in some instances such 
preparation will be followed by better results. 

Where the precipitation is light and the soil is 
heavy, the practise is not only allowable, but it may be 
commendable to grow the second grain crop after care- 
ful summer-fallowing by discing rather than by plow- 
ing; such preparation involves less labor and it will in 
most instances hold more moisture. The second crop 
will not, of course, equal the first, but more grain will 
result from such a system of cropping than from sum- 
mer-fallowing and cropping alternate years. 

When the first plowing has been done in the spring 
and it has been shallow, and is followed by a dry season, 
it may be better to disc than to plow, whether viewed 
from the standpoint of the saving of labor or from that 
of the conservation of moisture. But should the ground 
possess a fair amount of moisture at the time for plow- 
ing, then plowing, and more deeply than the first plow- 
ing, will be preferable. 

When land is so dry that it cannot be plowed to a 
sufficient depth in the autumn, and when if plowed it 
may be cloddy, then discing is preferable to plowing, 
and the following spring a second discing may be in 
order. 

After a cultivated crop, it is seldom that the plow- 
should be used in making a seed bed in preference to the 
disc, lest there should be undue loss of moisture, and 
because of the seed bed less clean that would follow. 
Lands that are quite light are also frequently better 
prepared with the disc than the plow. When thus pre- 
pared, the intermingling stubbles aid somewhat in hin- 
dering the blowing. 



142 DRY-LAND FARMING 

In some instances it is better neither to plow nor 
disc for a crop, as for instance when the soil is very 
much liable to lift with the wind, or when winter wheat 
follows a grain crop under climatic conditions where 
protection is necessary. In the first instance discing 
would add to the lifting of the soil, and in the second it 
would render less perfect the winter protection. The 
grain in both instances would be planted by the simple 
process of drilling. But in neither instance should grain 
be th.us planted on weedy land. 



CHAPTER VIII 
CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 

Cultivation in the broad sense includes all the various 
processes of tillage. In the discussion that follows it 
will include virtually all of these processes as applicable 
to dry areas except plowing, which was discussed in 
chapter VII. These include subsurface packing, discing, 
cultivating by implements other than the disc, harrowing, 
including the use of the weeder, rolling, planking and 
drilling. The discussion will also include the main- 
tenance of the dust mulch, cultivation suitable for grow- 
ing crops and clean tillage in the bare-fallow\ 

Subsurface packer and its use. — The subsurface 
packer as ordinarily constructed consists of a series of 
wedge shaped wheels, which revolve on a common axle. 
They are usually about 18 inches in diameter and are 
placed about 6 inches apart. They thus press the loose 
soil downward and to some extent laterally when in use.- 
The primary object sought is the firming of the land 
that has been newly plowed toward the bottom of the 
furrow slice and leaving it loose and friable at the sur- 
face. The pressure of the soil below so compacts it that 
moisture from the firmer subsoil may ascend into the 
less firm soil in the lower part of the furrow slice. In 
other words it re-establishes the capillary connection 
broken by plowing the land. The moisture which thus 
ascends is largely prevented from escaping by using the 
harrow after the packer. This implement also aids ma- 
terially in crushing lumps in cloddy soils. 

The subsurface packer may be used with advantage : 
(1) On spring plowed lands that are loose and lacking 
in moisture-holding power. (2) On lands that contain 
more or less trash, the bulk of which in plowing is placed 
between the furrow slice and the unbroken soil below. 



144 DRY LAND FARMING 

and which in dry areas, because of its slow decay, pre- 
vents the soil moisture that is below from properly as- 
cending. (3) On land that is dry and cloddy at the time of 
plowing, whether plowed fall or spring. The aim should 
be to avoid plowing land when in that condition in dry 
areas. When it must be plowed, the disc should usually 
precede the plow as, when it does, the proportion of 
fine earth is increased that falls at the bottom of the 
furrow slice, which so far is favorable to moisture re- 
tention. 

The packer usually follows the plow the same day 
that the land is plowed, and in some instances at the 
end of each half day, to prevent rapid escape of mois- 
ture. The harrow should at once follow the packer. In 
many instances, the packer should be weighted in order 
to firm the land sufificiently. More commonly, stones are 
used for such weighting. 

The subsurface packer should not be used: (1) On 
soil that is sufificently moist when it is plowed, unless in 
the case of land that is normally deficient in moisture- 
holding power. (2) On fall plowed land which, under 
normal conditions, will become sufficiently firmed below 
by the time that the season has arrived for sowing in 
the spring. Much of the bench land in dry areas is of 
this "class. Especially is this true of such of them as 
contain much lime, gypsum, granite and more or less 
sand. To use the packer on such land is liable to do 
serious harm, as it may put the lower soil in a condition 
which prevents the easy penetration of the roots of the 
plants through it. To keep such soils sufiiciently loose 
is more important than to firm them. (3) On lands 
that are naturally overtenacious, as stiff clays and gumbo 
soils. 

The claim that soil should be packed with the sub- 
soil packer to prevent precipitation from going too far 
down in the subsoil is not tenable save in soils that are 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 145 

overleachy. It is harmful in its tendencies, since in 
time of heavy rainfall the loss from ''run off" water 
would be increased. From what has been said it will 
also be apparent that while there is an important place 
for subsoil packing on certain soils, the claim sometimes 
made that the packer should in all instances follow the 
plow cannot be defended. 

The packers most commonly in use are not of very 
much value. They are too diminutive for effective work, 
and the wheels are of cast iron, which clog' in damp soil 
and which wear quickly. Among the best are the Dun- 
ham soil packers and pulverizers combined. The Dun- 
ham rigid frame packer and pulverizer is 8 feet long 




THREE SECTION DUNHAM PACKER AND PULVERIZER. 

15 Feet Long. 

Courtesy Deere & Webber Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 

and has 12 sections. The Dunham flexible packer and 
pulverizer is of two sizes, viz., 10 and 12 feet long, with 
14 and 18 sections respectively. A third Dunham packer 
and pulverizer is 15 feet long and has three divisions. 
The two last mentioned implements can adjust them- 
selves to uneven land. 

The disc and its use. — The disc, though commonly 
classed as a harrow in common with certain other im- 
plements, will not be so considered in the present dis- 
cussion. The same may also be said of the cutaway 
harrow, the spring tooth harrow and the alfalfa har- 



146 DRY LAND FARMING . 

row. Clearly these are cultivators and they will be so 
considered. They are all used for digging up the soil 
and to some extent for pulverizing it, while a harrow 
simply pulverizes, with the additional function of cover- 
ing the seed. A true harrow has spike teeth and they 
are dragged through the soil by a cutting and sliding 
rather than a revolving friction. The disc is more com- 
monly used for loosening up the surface soil, hence it is 
a cultivator rather than a harrow. It consists of a series 
of wheels from 12 to 20 inches in diameter, which are 
attached to an axle and revolve with the same when in 
use. Those most in favor are in two sections. The 
wheels have a sharp cutting edge, are to some extent 
concave on the outer side, and they are generally used 
at more or less of an angle to enable them to stir the 
soil effectively. In each of the sections the discs face 
outwards and this leaves a deep depression in the center 
between the two sections. In order to leave the land 
level and to do thorough work, what is termed double 
discing is usually practised. Double discing means draw- 
ing the disc over the land in one direction and lapping 
the implement to half its width on the disced land on the 
next trip. 

The value of the disc consists: (1) In stirring the 
surface soil more effectively and to a greater depth than 
this can be done by the ordinary harrow, and at a much 
less expenditure of power than would be involved in 
overturning the soil with the gang-plow. The friction 
in the revolving wheels is much less than the same 
would be in the dragging plowshare. (2) In loosening 
surfaces too much impacted to be readily loosened with 
the ordinary harrow. (3) In making a deeper seed bed 
on overturned sod lands than can be made by the harrow 
alone. (4) In destroying weeds that are too firmly rooted 
to be destroyed by the harrow. (5) In covering seed, and 
in cultivating crops at least to a limited extent. 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 147 

One great advantage of the two-section disc cul- 
tivator arises from the fairly regular depth to which 
the disc will cut regardless of the unevenness of the 
surface. A double-action disc is now in common use 
which will double disc the ground at one operation. The 
first section breaks the soil and the second reworks and 
firms it, and as the gangs are outthrow and inthrow the 
land is. left in a good condition. The size of the wheels 
or discs is ordinarily from 12 to 20 inches, and the width 
of the land stirred is from 6 to 10 feet. Usually discs 14 
to 16 inches in diameter do more effective work than 
those that are narrower, but they are heavier of draft. 

The disc may in all instances be used: (1) In the 
early spring on fall-plowed land that has become more 
or less impacted, to aid in making a good seed bed. (2) 
On summer-fallowed land, in the absence of a more ef- 
fective implement, to dislodge weeds which have become 
so firmly rooted that the ordinary harrow cannot dislodge 
them. (3) On summer-fallowed land to break the sub- 
surface crust that in some instances forms beneath the 
dust mulch made by the harrow. (4) On cultivated land, 
as corn, when preparing it for the grain or alfalfa crop 
that is to follow. To plow such land would result in the 
loss of moisture and would bring up weed seeds from 
below, which would tend to cover the land with weed 
life. (5) On breaking or sod land, setting the discs so 
straight as not to bring up sods. The object is to press 
down the furrow slice and to aid in making a soil mulch. 

It may be used in many instances: (1) On stubble 
land as soon as practicable after the grain has been re- 
moved to destroy weeds that are then growing, to en- 
courage germination in weed seeds and in volunteer 
grain, to prevent the escape of subsoil moisture, to open 
the soil for the easy penetration of rain, and to make 
more easy the plowing of the land at a later period. 



148 DRY LAND FARMING 

(2) On well established alfalfa crops in the early spring 
in the absence of other methods of stirring- the soil, and 
in some instances after certain of the cuttings of the 
same, the object being to destroy weeds and to aid in 
maintaining moisture. (3) When preparing the land for 
the second crop on breaking where it has not been back- 
set, as such preparation gives longer time for the sods 
to decay before they are brought up again to the surface. 
(4) On summer-fallowed land where summer downpours 
are not infrequent. When thus used the land should 
be single disced lengthwise, and then crosswise, so as 
to make little basins for catching the water. (5) On 
sod land that is to be broken, especially if the work can 
be done in the early spring, with a view to admit more 
moisture and to make the land plow more easily later. 
(6) On stubble land in the fall or early spring, that is 
to be summer-fallowed, to encourage the sprouting of 
weeds and the deeper penetration of moisture. (7) On 
autumn-sown grain in the spring when the soil has be- 
come so impacted that the harrow teeth cannot loosen 
it sufficiently, in order to admit air and moisture. 

The disc should not be used as a rule: (1) On land 
that is so loose that it does not require discing to make 
it more friable. To use it thus would be labor lost. (2) 
In preparing land for a crop for successive years on the 
same land, or even in a single instance, when plowing 
gives promise of better results. The disc works too near 
the surface to make it effective in doing work that is 
usually done with the plow. (3) On stubble land in 
which winter wheat is to be drilled where the danger is 
present that the wheat may be killed by the severity of 
the weather. 

The cutaway disc cultivator, a modified disc, fre- 
quently called the cutaway disc harrow, may render 
substantial service under some conditions on the dry 
farm, especially in fields where trash and sods abound. 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 



149 



The blades give a chopping blow and, therefore, cut 
more deeply in hard ground than the round disc, but 
they do not pulverize it so well. The cutaway disc is 
something of a mean between the disc and the spading 
disc, which is virtually a form of disc that does not clog. 
It can be used on rough corn ground, for instance, sev- 
eral days earlier than the ordinary disc. 

Cultivators other than the disc. — The various culti- 
vators in use are verv manv and for each there would 




THE MINNESOTA CHIEF SPRING TOOTH HARROW 
Courtesy Deere & Webber Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 



seem to be a place where it will do better work than 
can be done by other cultivators. In dry areas, how- 
ever, the number of these that are highly adapted to the 
needs of the farmer is somewhat limited. Prominent 
among these are : the spring tooth cultivator, frequently 
called the spring tooth harrow; the clod crusher; the 
Climax cultivator; the alfalfa cultivator; the alfalfa 
renovator, sometimes called the alfalfa harrow ; the 



150 DRY LAND FARMING 

surface cultivator, and the spike tooth cultivator. 
There is also a garden cultivator, of which that known 
as the Planet Jr. is one of the best. 

The spring tooth cultivators are of several types. 
Prominent among these are the Old Reliable, with wood 
frames, and the Minnesota Chief (see p. 149.) The 
latter has a steel frame and it is of such construction 
that it acts also as a runner, that is, it has runners on 
the two sides which tend to lighten the draft. The 
depth to which the teeth cut can be adjusted. When 
they meet an impediment in the soil, as the name implies, 
they are so flexible that they spring over it without 
breaking. 

The clod crusher is virtually an improvement on 
the Acme harrow, which has been used so effectively 
on wide areas in the humid country, and which 
may also do eft'ective work under dry conditions in 
certain areas. The knives of this very useful imple- 
ment are curved and the slant given them is adjustable. 
They cut into the soil for some distance and fine it by 
crushing the lumps. They slice off ridges and hum- 
mocks, and destroy weeds unless they are strongly rooted. 
The rake teeth at the rear still further fine, smooth and 
level the ground. The rear gauge wheels make it pos- 
sible to regulate the cutting depth of the knives. It 
does most effective work while the clods are not yet 
hard and dry. 

The Climax cultivator is a wheel cultivator with two 
or three sets of V-shaped teeth or shares of different 
widths. These are attached to iron or steel bars which 
project downward from a strong frame. The shares cut 
below the surface of the ground and are adjustable as to 
the depth of the cutting. The different widths are in- 
tended to make it possible to cut over the whole surface 
or a part of it or to dig into the soil rather than cut 
through it. This implement, considerably used in some 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 



151 



places to cut off such weeds as the Canada thistle below 
the surface, is somewhat heavy of draft. 

The alfalfa cultivator (see p. 317), as the name 
implies, is specially designed to cultivate alfalfa fields. 
The round curved and sharp pointed teeth are de- 
signed to dig into the soil with a view to loosening it 
for some distance below the surface. The depth to which 
they penetrate the soil can be adjusted, and it is wholly 
independent of the weight of the machine. A seeder at- 




THE DEERE CLOD CRUSHER, LEVELLER AND SMOOTHER. 
Courtesy Deere & Webber Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 

tachment for sowing alfalfa seed may be secured along 
with the cultivator, which makes it easily practicable to 
add to the stand of the plants. 

The alfalfa renovator or harrow (see p. 311) is a 
modification of the ordinary disc, in that it has strong 
steel spikes projecting from the discs. The Deere alfalfa 
harrow is of two sizes, 6 and 7 feet long respectively, 
and it has stationary scrapers to aid in keeping the im- 
plement free from clogging with trash when in use. 



152 DRY LAND FARMING 

The surface cultivator (see p. 278) is chiefly used 
for cultivating corn, but may be used in cultivating 
various other plants. As the name implies, it works the 
soil near the surface and it is furnished with knives 
rather than shovels, which cut off and thus displace 
weeds. Shovel rigs may also be used upon it and sur- 
face attachments for smoothing the soil. The large 
wheels with their broad tires make it easy of draft, and 
the high arch between the wheels makes it possible to 
cultivate corn without breaking it when 3 to 4 feet high. 
It is drawn by two horses as a rule, and cultivates one 
row at a time, but there is also a two-row cultivator 
which is drawn by three horses. 

The spike tooth cultivator (see p. 200) has steel 
teeth slightly curving forward. It has a gauge wheel 
for regulating the depth. It is drawn by one horse and 
is intended to stir the soil deeply should this be desired. 
It is not so valuable as the surface cultivator for destroy- 
ing weeds. Various other cultivators are in use, some 
with discs, some with shovels, some with knives, and 
some with a combination of these, but the surface cul- 
tivator and the spike tooth cultivator, judiciously used, 
will usually suffice for the cultivation of corn and vari- 
ous other crops. But where corn is listed, other culti- 
vators, more commonly of the disc pattern, are called for. 

The Planet Jr. is a very useful cultivator. It may 
be worked by hand or by the aid of a horse. It is 
furnished with knives and shovels and is intended for 
use in gardens and on small areas generally. 

The spring tooth cultivator is used chiefly for loosen- 
ing up land that has been plowed and has again become 
impacted. It has special adaptation for use in ground 
where obstructions to cultivation are present, as in the 
form of roots or stones, and for land that is too moist 
to work well with the ordinary disc. The clod crusher 



CUL'riVATlON IN DRY AREAS 



153 



has adaptation for land that is still cloddy after ?rain 
has been sown on it, and also for summer-fallows when 
weeds are jnst beginning to sprout numerously on them 




CI 



limax cultivator is useful in cuttins^ off perennial 
weeds below the surface of the ground, as, for ^ns Zee 
the sow th.stle and the Canada thistle, especially on land 



154 DRY LAND FARMING 

that is being summer-fallowed. The alfalfa cultivator 
has special adaptation for loosening alfalfa soils to a 
greater depth than would be easily practicable with the 
ordinary disc. Owing to the peculiar shape of the teeth 
they do but little harm to the plants. The alfalfa reno- 
vator stirs the soil more fully than the alfalfa cultivator, 
but not to so great a depth. It also will break up the 
hard crust that forms beneath the surface in some soils. 
The surface cultivator has special adaptation for freeing 
the land from weeds in cultivated crops where it is not 
desirable or necessary to cultivate deeply. The spike 
tooth cultivator is specially helpful in breaking up the 
undercrust that in so many instances forms in cultivated 
land under the dust mulch. 

The spring tooth cultivator should not be used on 
land where the disc will accomplish the work more ef- 
fectively. The Climax cultivator should not be used or- 
dinarily on summer-fallow land when it can be kept clean 
with the disc and harrow. The alfalfa cultivator should 
not be used on alfalfa fields at any time when the soil 
is unduly moist or when it will tend too much to stimu- 
late growth on the approach of winter. The surface 
cultivator should not be used on corn or other crops to 
destroy weeds that have become so deeply rooted as to 
call for some kind of shovel teeth to dislodge them unless 
indeed such teeth can be used on the same, nor should 
it be used when its further use would break down the 
corn plants to any considerable extent. The spike tooth 
cultivator should not be depended on alone to clean 
weedy land. This it cannot do without involving an 
undue amount of labor. 

Harrows and their uses. — While there are several 
styles of harrows in ordinary use, it would seem correct 
to say that only three of these are specially suited to the 
needs of dry areas. These are: (1) the adjustable spike 
tooth steel lever harrow, (2) the weeder, and (3) the 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 



155 



sixty-penny spike tooth wooden harrow. The first of 
these is made of steel and in sections (see p. 157). 
The sections are coupled insomuch that when it is so 
desired they may be made to cover 24 feet at one stroke 
of the harrow. When thus used they are drawn by 4 to 
6 horses. More commonly, however, they consist of but 
two sections and are drawn by two horses. The teeth 
are adjustable, insomuch that the harrow may be used 
with the teeth pointed forward or backward at any angle 
that may be desired or they may be used erectly. The 




THE JANESVILLE HALLOCK 12-FOOT RIDING WEEDER. 
Courtesy Janesville Machine Co., Janesville, Wis. 



angle at which the teeth are adjusted influences the depth 
to which the teeth drag and also the extent to which 
they dislodge volunteer grain or weeds. 

The weeder consists of a series of long, rigid steel 
teeth attached to a bar which is stationary. The imple- 
ment is conveyed on wheels and the depth to which the 
teeth penetrate the soil is adjustable. The use of this 
implement is confined mainly to the destruction of new- 
ly sprouted weeds in grain crops or in cultivated crops 
in the early stages of their growth. 



156 DRY LAND FARMING 

The sixty-penny spike tooth wooden harrow has a 
frame made of 2 by 4 inch scantling and the frame is of 
some light wood, as pine. The teeth are the sixty-penny 
spikes driven through the scantlings in openings pre- 
pared by brace and bit, to the desired distance. This 
harrow is of home construction and may be of any width 
desired. It is intended for use on very soft, fine surfaces 
where the steel harrow would sink too deeply in the soil. 
(See p. 168.) 

While the objects sought from the use of the har- 
row are various, the following are prominent among 
these: (1) The pulverization of the soil so that germi- 
nating plants will be furnished with conditions that favor 
rapid growth. (2) To cover the seed that may have been 
broadcasted, as when sown by hand. (3) To destroy 
weeds in the early stages of their growth. When firmly 
rooted they cannot be dislodged by the harrow. (4) To 
aid in conserving soil moisture. In dry areas no imple- 
ment will equal the harrow in efficiency for such a use. 

The steel harrow is used: (1) To pulverize the seed 
bed on land that has been plowed. It is greatly impor- 
tant that this shall be done as soon as possible after the 
land has been plowed or disced, to prevent the escape 
of moisture, and also after rain, should the same be prac- 
ticable. (2) On summer-fallow land to firm and main- 
tain a dust mulch throughout the season, and especially 
after any considerable rain, and to destroy weeds as 
they begin to grow. The dust mulch is to hinder as 
far as may be the escape of moisture. (3) To cover the 
seeds of grain that may have been broadcasted, as when 
hand sown, and to furnish additional covering for drill- 
sown grain on land not in good condition of preparation. 
(4) On several cultivated crops, especially corn and po- 
tatoes, before they appear above ground, and subse- 
quent to their appearance until they are several inches 
high. The number of these harrowings is dependent on 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 



157 



the conditions present, but usually it is not less than 
four. (5) On nearly all kinds of small grain, after the 
blades begin to show and until the plants are ready to 
shoot, to keep the soil from encrusting, to destroy weeds 
and to prevent moisture from escaping from below. The 
number of the harrowings given to a grain crop may 
run from 1 to 5. In some instances harrowing may not 
be called for, owing to peculiarities of season and soil. 

The steel harrow is sometimes used, but not in all 
instances: (1) On fall-plowed land to aid in its pul- 




ONE SECTION OF THE AJAX STEEL LEVER HARROW. 
Courtesy Deere & Webber Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 

verization. (2) On several of the small grains between 
the season of sowing and the appearance of the plants, 
the object being to destroy weeds and to prevent en- 
crustations. (3) On winter grain autumn and spring, 
to hold moisture and to loosen and aerate the land. 

The harrow should not be used: (1) On cloddy 
land until the clods are first crushed with roller or 
planker, as on such land it will not do effective work. 
(2) On breaking or overturned sod until the sods have 
been pressed down with disc, roller or planker, lest 
many of the sods should be left with the grass on the 



158 DRY LAND FARMING 

top side. (3) On grain from, say, 1 to 3 inches high, save 
when a crust forms, kst much of the grain should be 
buried. (4) On grain crops when wet with dew or rain, 
as then the grain will be more or less injured with the 
soil that will adhere to the blades, and the weeds present 
will not be destroyed. The harrow cannot do effective 
work in killing weeds when the soil or the grain is 
unduly wet. 

The weeder is used on soils that are so loose as to 
interfere with the use of the steel harrow, which sinks 
so deeply into them as to drag the cross-bars more or 
less along the surface of the ground. The teeth of the 
weeder may be so adjusted as to regulate the depth to 
which they will cut. This implement is intended for 
use mainly, if not, indeed, wholly, on crops that are grow- 
ing. It may be used on plants too high for being har- 
rowed with ordinary spike tooth harrows. On large areas 
four-horse gang weeders are the most satisfactory. 

The sixty-penny spike tooth wooden harrow is in- 
tended to stir the surface of the soil in grain crops where 
it is very loose. Its value lies in a considerable degree in 
the small cost of construction, as it may be made by the 
farmer himself. The end which it serves may be served 
as well, if not, indeed, better, by the weeder. Neither the 
weeder nor the sixty-penny spike tooth wooden harrow 
has any important mission where the soils are stiff or 
cloddy, or where they are much inclined to encrust. 

Rollers and their uses. — Rollers are of various types. 
These embrace: (1) The old-fashioned log roller made 
from the trunk of a tree and in some instances containing 
two and even three sections. (2) The steel land roller 
(see p. 160), usually made in three sections and 
with closed head, which prevents earth from accumulating 
inside of the drum. These are from 8 to 10 feet long. 
(3) The corrugated steel roller, also sometimes made in 
sections. This roller has somewhat wedge shaped pro- 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 159 

tuberances on the rim of the drum, which aid in crushing 
lumps and in leaving the soil in a condition that will 
cause it to lift and encrust less readily with the wind. 
While each of these may have a place on the dry land 
farm, the place for the corrugated roller is more im- 
portant than for rollers of the other types. 

The mission of the roller in dry areas is virtually 
twofold — first, to aid in smoothing plowed land so that it 
may subsequently be pulverized more readily, and, sec- 
ond, to aid in crushing clods when these are present. Its 
use is much more restricted than in humid areas, and 
chiefly for the reason that it tends to draw moisture to 
the surface, much of which will escape into the air unless 
the disc or the harrow follows the roller.- It will not effect 
the end served by the subsurface packer, as it firms the 
soil above, and to a less extent below, whereas, the sub- 
surface packer firms it below and leaves it loose above. 

Rollers should be used in dry areas: (1) To flatten 
down sod land newly plowed so that the disc or harrow 
or both may do more effective work when securing the 
requisite pulverization that should follow. The com- 
pression of the sod also hastens decay. In some in- 
stances the disc, in the absence of the roller, will do 
this work sufficiently well. (2) To crush clods when 
preparing cloddy land for the harrow. When clods and 
pulverized earth are both present, it may be necessary 
to follow the roller with a disc or spring tooth harrow 
to bring up clods from the subsurface soil and to roll a 
second time. When a good subsurface packer is at 
hand, it may suffice to crush the clods below without 
bringing them up, providing it may be safely and ad- 
vantageously used on such soil. (3) To press the soil 
around newly sown grain when the grain has not been 
put into the same with a press drill. But when thus 
used the harrow should follow to prevent the too rapid 
escape of moisture that would otherwise occur. (4) To 



160 



DRY LAND FARMING 



break the crust that forms on grain as the result of rain 
at that stage of growth when the use of the harrow may 
bury the grain. In some instances the roller will do 
this work quite as effectively as the harrow. 

The roller should not be used in dry areas: (1) on 
any land or any crop, unless followed by the harrow, lest 
the land should encrust if rain follows ; (2) on light sandy 
land that will lift readily with the wind, as the wind lifts 
the soil much more readily from a smooth than from a 
rough surface; (3) on land that packs readily, unless in 




THE DANDY DUNHAM STEEL LAND ROLLER. 
Courtesy Deere & Webber Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 

exceptional instances ; (4) for the purpose of covering 
grass seeds that have been sown broadcast, as is some- 
times done in humid areas; (5) on either fall or spring 
sown grain as the final operation of tillage ; (6) on 
autumn-sown grain in the spring, save where the soil 
is liable to heave. 

Flankers and their use. — A planker is an implement, 
more commonly of home construction, that is used in 
smoothing and levelling and in some instances also for 
compressing the soil. It is made of planks and is 
of various patterns. There is perhaps no type of 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 161 

planker better adapted to the needs of the dry farm than 
that which consists of three or four 2^ or 3 inch 
planks, 12 inches broad and say 8 to 12 feet long. It 
should be made of some strong wood, as fir, but soft 
wood, as pine, will answer, although it will wear more 
quickly as a result of the friction when it is drawn over 
the land. The construction is in outline as follows : One 
plank is laid on the ground or on cross-pieces for greater 
convenience in making it. A second plank is so placed 
that it will lap over the first one about 4 inches. The 
third and fourth, if a fourth is used, are similarly lapped. 
They are spiked together, or, what is better, are held 
together by pieces of scantling which run across the 
planks, the latter being somewhat notched on the high 
edges to receive them. Bolts are inserted from below 
which run through the cross-pieces. On top of these 
and lengthwise of the planks a sufiiciently strong plank 
may be nailed on which the driver may stand should 
he so desire. It is drawn by chains attached to or toward 
the end front corners and meeting in the middle. If the 
shoulders of the planks underneath, that is, the rear 
edges, are faced with sheet iron, they will wear much 
longer than in the absence of such facing. The planker 
when in use may or may not be weighted with stones. 
(See p. 162.) 

This simple device is highly useful on the dry farm. 
It is used: (1) for compressing and smoothing newly 
plowed sod land ; (2) for pulverizing clods that lie 
numerously over the surface ; (3) for leveling land that 
is uneven ; (4) for smoothing land that is to be drilled 
for certain uses, and (5) for compressing land under cer- 
tain conditions that has been sown or planted. 

When used to compress sod land, the planker should 
be weighted. It is very eflfective for such a use. It 
should follow the line of the plow furrow when used on 
such land. It puts it in excellent shape for following 



162 



DRY LAND FARMING 



effectively with disc or harrow, or with the seed drill, 
when flax is to be sown. It turns clods into dust much 
more effectively than the roller. The planker will very 
effectively crush clods in such land by following it with 
the spring tooth harrow to bring up clods from below, 
and again using the planker. When levelling land that 
is uneven, the planker should be drawn with the shoul- 
ders underneath projecting forward so that loose earth 
will be drawn in front of these to fall into the low places. 
Should it be necessary to plank the ground a second 
time when levelling it, the disc should precede the sec- 
ond planking given. In all other instances, the shoul- 




HOME MADE PLANKER. 



ders should point backward. When smoothing land that 
is to be drilled it leaves it in a condition that makes drill 
or row marks easily traceable. When used on a flax 
crop newly sown on sod or even on other land, quick 
germination is promoted and the land is left in a nice, 
smooth condition for reaping. 

The planker should not be used: (1) On land that 
is sufliciently friable and otherwise in good condition. 
To use it under such conditions would be a waste of 
time and energy. (2) To serve the ends sought from 
using the subsurface packer, as it firms the soil above 
but not below. (3) On soils that are liable to blow, un- 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 163 

less followed by the harrow or the grain drill, (4) On 
land that is much strewn with stones, but where only 
a few are present it may serve as a means of conveying 
them to the borders of the field. 

Seed drills and their uses. — Seed drills are of sev- 
eral kinds. They include the single disc drill, the double 
disc drill, the double disc press drill, the hoe drill, the 
shoe drill and several makes of broadcast seeders. For 
ordinary sowing in dry areas, the hoe drill and the shoe 
drill are but little used. It is very largely confined to 
the three types of disc drill first named. There is also a 
place of no little importance for the small disc drill, 
which more commonly has but five discs.- There is al- 
most no place for broadcast seeders on the dry farm, as 
they do not bury the seed to a uniform and in many in- 
stances to a sufficient depth. Each of the four kinds of 
disc drills named will fill a place better than can be 
filled by any of the others. 

The single disc drill (see p. 164) opens a furrow 
in the soil for the seed which drops into it, and it 
is covered by the earth falling back upon it behind the 
disc. The double disc drill (see p. 165) makes an 
opening into the soil between each two discs. The seed 
falls into this opening, where it is deposited at a uniform 
depth. The disc press drill (see p. 177) has a wheel 
following each drill mark, which firms the earth around 
and over the seed. The small disc drill is for use 
where only one horse can work, as between corn rows. 

The single disc drill has adaptation for sowing grain 
on land that may be too rough or too moist to use the 
double disc drill on it to advantage. On rough and espe- 
cially on stony ground, it will open a seed furrow more 
readily, and it will clog less readily in overmoist ground. 
The double disc drill has highest adaptation for clean 
land. As it drops the seed at the bottom of the furrow, 
it is first covered by moist earth, which, under dry condi- 



164 



DRY LAND FARMING 



tions, is especially advantageous. The press drill still 
further aids germination, especially in loose and spongy 
soil, by so firming the earth that the seed is left under 
most favorable conditions for quick and sure germina- 
tion. The small one-horse disc drill may be so used that 
drilling can be adjusted to spaces of different widths 
between the corn rows. 




THE SINGLE DISC DRILL. 
Courtesy American Seeding Machine Co., Springfield, Ohio. 

The aim should be to avoid using the single disc 
drill where the double disc will answer the purpose bet- 
ter. Should it be necessary to use it on soil somewhat 
lacking in moisture, the roller should follow the drill 
and the harrow the roller. The soil will then be firmed 
around the seed and it will not blow. The aim should 
also be to avoid using the double disc drill on land over- 
firm, rough or stony, or when the ground is so moist as 
to preclude doing good work, nor should the press drill 
be used on soil that bakes readily, save under conditions 
that are exceptional. 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 



165 



Because of the importance of burying the seeds of 
grasses, clovers and alfalfa in the soil, those who invest 
in drills in the future should aim to have a grass seed 
attachment that will run the seed into, the grain tubes 
so that it may be provided with a covering whether sown 
alone or along with the grain crop. 

Maintaining the dust mulch in dry areas. — By the 
dust mulch is meant a layer of earth more or less fine 
and dry, covering the surface of the soil to the depth of 




THE DOUBLE DISC DRILL. 
Courtesy American Seeding Machine Co., Springfield, Ohio. 

2 to 3 inches. It is usually composed of fine soil, but 
the ideal dust mulch is composed of soil that includes 
soil particles as fine as dust, intermingled with soil gran- 
ules. Soil granules means soil in which a number of 
soil particles adhere so as to form small lumps of soil. 
When the soil is destitute of these soil granules it is 
much liable to lift more or less with the wind and to run 
together and become im'pacted by rainfall so that it en- 
crusts. When composed wholly of soil granules, it does 



166 DRY LAND FARMING 

not sufficiently prevent the escape of soil moisture, hence 
the combination of these forms the ideal dust mulch. Re- 
peated harrowings in dry weather will probably result in 
too much fining of the particles, whereas harrowing at the 
opportune time after rains will result in that granular 
condition of the soil which, in conjunction with the fine 
soil particles, makes the ideal dust mulch. The name 
"dust mulch" is something of a misnomer. The designa- 
tion ''soil mulch"- is more appropriate. 

The mission of the dust or soil mulch is to prevent 
the escape of moisture from the soil below the mulch 
and also from the subsoil. When water climbs up from 
below, on the principle of capillarity, it cannot pass 
through a layer of dry earth. In the absence of such a 
layer on the surface it climbs up and goes out into the 
atmosphere insomuch that it is lost to the soil. When 
rain falls so as to saturate the dust mulch it puts the 
surface in that condition which facilitates the escape of 
moisture, on the principle that capillary water can only 
climb through a moist soil. When the dust mulch has 
become thus saturated, on drying the soil contracts, with 
the result that it becomes filled with numerous fissures. 
Through these the moisture rapidly escapes into the air. 
To check such loss of moisture it is necessary to harrow 
the land as soon as dry enough to remove the encrusta- 
tion, and to fill up the cracks. When the harrowing is 
done at the right stage of dryness, it tends to insure that 
granulated condition of the soil which is so favorable to 
the maintenance of a dust mulch. Should such harrow- 
ing be neglected or even too long deferred, the benefit 
that would otherwise result from rain may be lost, as 
when the top soil is moistened it facilitates the climbing 
of the moisture to the surface. 

The dust or soil mulch has an exceedingly important 
place in all areas where the supply of moisture is less 
than could be desired. The less the degree of the pre- 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 167 

cipitation, the greater is' the necessity for th#dust mulch. 
It has also an important place in areas with a sufficiency 
of rainfall for the season, were it properly distributed, 
but which are more or less subject to dry periods during 
the season of growth. Moreover it will prove very help- 
ful in irrigated areas after each application of water to 
crops that are of that kind, and in that stage of growth, 
that will admit of some kind of surface cultivation while 
they are growing. 

It is always in place: (1) On summer-fallowed land 
in dry areas and during the entire season. (2) In these 
areas it is also more commonly in place on small-grain 
crops during the early stages of growth, but in seasons of 
unusual moisture during the growing period it may not 
be necessary. (3) On small-grain crops in humid areas 
in seasons of more than usual drought during the early 
stages of growth in the grain. (4) On alfalfa lands in 
dry areas, especially in the early part of the season. 
(5) On all crops properly known as cultivated crops, and 
during almost the entire period of growth. Of course, the 
dust mulch on small cereals and alfalfa land is very much 
less complete than on land that is fallow or that is grow- 
ing a cultivated crop, but on the former it is nevertheless 
a dust mulch in a modified form. 

On the summer-fallow the dust mulch is maintained 
on many soils almost entirely by the aid of the harrow. 
But on some soils the aid of the disc is necessary in some 
instances to aid in killing weeds, to break up impaction 
resulting from a heavy rain or to break up a crust formed 
beneath the soil mulch made by the harrow. Such a 
crust will form in some soils in the absence of rain. 
When it forms, it should invariably be broken up by some 
deeper form of cultivation, as when present it excludes 
aeration and therefore stays proportionately the active 
working of bacteria in the soil. 



168 



DRY LAND FARMING 



On cnlt^ated crops the diis^ mulch is maintained, 
first, by the aid of the harrow, and, second, by that of 
some form of cultivator. On these, as on the summer-fal- 
low, the aim should be to prevent encrustation above and 
below. This will involve stirring the soil after every con- 
siderable rain. The results would be better could it be. 
stirred after every rain, but in practise this may not be 
practicable. In dry weather, when no cracks are present 
in the soil or any encrustations above or below, there 
would not seem to be any advantage from stirring the 
soil. On cereal crops, the aim should be to prevent en- 
crustation until the leaves shade the soil. 




THE SIXTY-PENNY SPIKE TOOTH WOODEN HOME MADE HARROW. 

The summer-fallow in dry areas. — The summer-fal- 
low in dry areas means land that has been plowed the 
previous autumn, or some time during the spring or 
early summer, and is then kept more or less free from 
weed growth subsequently by some form of cultivation, 
until the season has arrived for sowing on it an autumn 
or a spring crop. Because of the amount of surface 
cultivation given to the soil when thus fallow, it is fre- 
quently spoken of as summer-tilled land. The term fal- 
low implies that the soil is idle during the period of 
tillage, but to this idea there is the exception that in 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 169 

some instances a crop that grows quickly is sometimes 
produced for renovation purposes. 

In humid areas, land is summer-fallowed chiefly for 
the purpose of reducing weed growth in the same. In 
diy areas it is summer-fallowed chiefly for the purpose 
of increasing the moisture in the soil and subsoil for the 
benefit of the crop that follows, but it is also handled 
thus to reduce weed growth. In such areas the former 
reason is usually the dominant one, but to this there may 
be some exceptions, as when the land is to be freed from 
the presence of volunteer grain. It will be at once ap- 
parent, therefore, that the place assigned to the summer- 
fallow will always be more important relatively in dry 
than in humid areas. In some humid areas where the 
cultivation is intense, there may be no place for the 
summer-fallow, as crops may be grown successfully from 
year to year and without any intermission on the same 
land, but that is not true of dry areas. 

The frequency with which the summer-fallow should 
be introduced into the rotation will depend upon various 
conditions, as soil, subsoil, precipitation and evapora- 
tion. More commonly, however, where the rainfall is 
15 inches and less, it will be found profitable to intro- 
duce the summer-fallow every second or third year (see 
p. 397). But where the soil lifts readily with the wind, 
it should not be introduced, except when they possess 
enough vegetable matter to bind them. 

Sod land may be plowed for summer-fallow in the 
autumn when it is amply supplied with moisture at that 
season, which seldom happens, however, save in areas 
where much of the precipitation falls in the autumn 
and winter. More commonly it is in best condition in 
the late spring, and it should then be plowed to a depth 
of not less than 6 inches. It should be packed at once 
with some form of packer and a dust mulch formed on it 
and maintained to the end of the season (see p. 165). 



170 DRY LAND FARMING 

The aim should be to avoid cropping such land the first 
sea'son, in order that moisture may be stored in the sub- 
soil. 

The best time to plow land for summer-fallow in 
dry areas, all things considered, is the autumn, provid- 
ing the soil is possessed of enough moisture to admit of 
plowing it deeply. If the soil is very dry it will be 
better to simply disc it so that water that falls may 
penetrate it the more readily, leaving the deep plowing 
that should be given to it until the spring. When plowed 
in the autumn, it should be disced and harrowed in the 
early spring. It should then be harrowed with suf- 
ficient frequency to maintain a dust mulch throughout 
the season. 

When the ground cannot be plowed or disced in 
the autumn, it may be disced in the early spring and 
then plowed later, that is, at a time when the soil has 
much moisture in it. This, in all or nearly all the Great 
Plains country, is usually May or June. It should usu- 
ally be at once packed witTi disc or packer, and a dust 
mulch formed and maintained on it with the harrow. As 
a rule summer-fallow land should not be given more 
than one plowing in dry areas, lest too much moisture 
should be lost, but to this there may be some exceptions, 
as when the soil is much liable to pack. The advice 
sometimes given to plow summer-fallow land a second 
time and somewhat late in the season would seem to 
be misleading. 

Cultivating crops in dry areas. — In dry areas more 
of the crops relatively are cultivated than in humid 
areas, and the cultivation given to them is in many in- 
stances more prolonged. This arises from the greater 
necessity which exists for keeping the land in that 
mechanical condition which will best guard it against 
vicissitude from the effects of drought. Nearly all the 
crops grown may be cultivated to some extent and in 



CULTIVATION IN DRY AREAS 171 

some way during the process of growth. For a more 
complete enumeiation of these, see p 269. Such cultiva- 
tion embraces harrowing, discing, renovating and culti- 
vating by various implements and in various ways. 
Grain crops, grass crops, forage crops and root crops all 
come in for more or less of cultivation. More com- 
monly the only cultivation of grain crops is given by 
the harrow, that given to grass crops, as alfalfa, comes 
from the disc and harrow, that given to forage crops 
from the harrow and certain cultivators, and the same 
is true of root crops and tubers. The exact character 
of the cultivation suitable to each is given when dis- 
cussing in succeeding chapters how these should be 
grown. The object at this time is rather to discuss the 
general character of the cultivation and the extent of the 
same. 

Grains are harrowed to keep the soil open, for the 
easier penetration of water, to prevent it from escaping 
when it enters, and to aid in destroying weeds. The har- 
rowing should seek to avoid burying the grain and tear- 
ing too much of it out. Grasses are disced usually be- 
fore growth begins. The severity of the discing or reno- 
vating called for depends upon the excess, if any, in the 
stand of the plants, their abilty to stand severe discing, 
and the hardness of the ground. Nearly all grasses 
will profit from an annual or biennial discing, as the sur- 
face is thus loosened for the better admission of air and 
moisture. Forage crops when too high to use the har- 
row on them can only be cultivated further by imple- 
ments that run between the rows. 

In humid areas, shallow cultivation during the en- 
tire period of the cultivation is recommended. The ad- 
vice thus given is suitable, for under such conditions the 
crops root relatively shallow. This requires some modi- 
fication in dry areas, as crops root more deeply in 
such soils. It would seem correct to say that the culti- 



172 DRY LAND FARMING 

vation should be both shallow and deep. The necessity 
for this arises, at least on many soils, from the tendency 
in them to encrust below the shallow cultivation, as pre- 
viously intimated. If cultivation reasonably deep is 
given at the first, while lateral root growth is yet limited, 
the time of such encrustations will be deferred. When 
it does occur some implement must be used to break it 
up, even at the risk of breaking some of the roots of the 
plants, as to do this may be the lesser of the two evils. 
The breaking of this crust under the soil mulch is a mat- 
ter of much moment when growing such cultivated crops. 
The extent of the cultivation will vary with the 
different crops and classes of crops. Grains are seldom 
harrowed beyond the time when there are indications 
of jointing, and not very frequently for so long a period. 
Some crops grown in rows, as alfalfa for seed, and peas, 
cannot be cultivated to a late stage of growth because 
of the recumbent character of the growth. Those of 
upright growth, however, should be given cultivation 
until and in some instances beyond the time for begin- 
ning seed formation. 



CHAPTER IX 
SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS 

In some respects the methods to be pursued in sow- 
ing grain and planting seeds of all kinds in dry areas 
are the same as in humid areas. In other respects the 
contrast is very marked. The rules that govern correct 
sowing and planting are much more exact and inflexi- 
ble than those which govern the same in humid areas. 
This less degree of latitude in dry areas relates: (1) to 
the time of planting; (2) to the mode of planting; (3) 
to the depth to plant ; (4) to the amount of seed to use, 
and (5) to the soil conditions at the time of planting. 
In humid areas, for instance, plants may be sown early 
or late, and more or less of a crop may be looked for, 
whereas in dry areas a late-sown crop may completely 
fail. In humid areas germination may be good from both 
drill and broadcast sowing, in dry areas the seed may 
fail to germinate from the latter when it will not so fail 
from the former. In humid areas plants will germinate 
within any reasonable distance of the surface, in dry areas 
they will only germinate when down far enough to 
reach moisture. In humid areas good results may fol- 
low in each instance from free seeding and in varying 
quantities, in dry areas limited quantities only will 
give results. In humid areas seed may be sown with the 
expectation that rain may come ; in dry areas such ex- 
pectation may prove fallacious. Sowing and planting in 
dry areas call for much more exactness than in humid 
areas. 

The advantages from drill sowing. — Drill sowing is 
much superior to broadcast sowing in dry areas. In fact 
it IS so much superior to broadcast sowing that it may 
in a sense be said that there is no place for the latter. 
Drill sowing has the following among other advantages : 



174 DRY LAND FARMING 

(1) It buries the seed to a uniform depth. (2) The 
depth may be varied to suit the conditions. (3) The 
ground may be compressed above the seed. (4) There 
is a saving in the amount of seed. 

The burial of the seed to a uniform depth in dry 
areas is greatly important. Under humid conditions seed 
will germinate almost equally well at varying depths, 
but in dry areas the seeds buried shallow, as some of them 
are in broadcast sowing, will not germinate at all in the 
absence of rain. Should the plants appear unevenly they 
will grow unevenly. The early plants will rob the late 
ones of moisture, which will result in dwarfing them, and 
the ripening of the crop will be uneven. 

But more important than the planting of the seed 
at an even depth, is the planting of the same at a depth 
that will insure germination. For instance, the best depth 
at which to plant a certain kind of seed is, say, 2 inches. 
But the moisture in the soil may be half an inch or an 
inch lower down. With the grain drill, the seed may be 
put down to where the moisture is, and so germination 
is insured. In the absence of a drill such planting would 
not be possible. Its use renders it entirely practicable 
to plant autumn-sown seeds deeply to fit them for going 
through the winter in better form, and to plant spring- 
sown seeds moderately deep or less deeply to suit the 
moisture conditions that may be present. 

The ability to compress the soil around seed more or 
less, which some drills furnish, is in many instances a 
great advantage. The class of drills known as press 
drills will accomplish this (see p. 177). The advantage 
from such compression is, that the circulation of air 
around the seed is so far reduced that the moisture 
needed to germinate the grain is better retained. Such 
compression, however, is not adapted to all soils. In 
some soils it would shut out the air too completely, as 
when they are of a heavy character and may contain an 



SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS 175 

excess of moisture. Such compression, however, is help- 
ful to ^nearly all the soils of the dry areas. 

There is also a saving in the amount of seed called 
for. This is the outcome of the more perfect germina- 
tion secured in drill sowing. In humid areas the saving 
thus effected is fully 12^ per cent., which means that 
where 8 pecks of seed are called for when sown on the 
broadcast plan, 7 pecks will answer the same purpose 
when sown by the drill. The saving thus effected in 
dry areas will be quite as much relatively, but it will 
be less absolutely, because of the less amount of seed 
called for in dry areas. The saving in the amount of 
seed called for will be at least relative, and this will 
mean that the saving effected in the amount of seed 
called for would soon pay for the cost of a drill where 
large areas of grain are to be sown. In moist areas 
the saving thus effected in seed is less than one peck 
per acre. In humid areas it is not less than half that 
amount. With so much of saving on each acre, the 
entire saving thus effected would soon repay the out- 
lay incurred in purchasing a drill where the area to be 
sown is large. 

The disadvantages of broadcasting. — One of the 
great disadvantages resulting from broadcasting the 
seed is, that in all instances when thus sown it may 
not be deposited deeply enough to enable it to reach 
moist soil. If the moisture has left the surface for some 
distance downward, the seed may not germinate at all 
until rains come, and when these come the season may 
be too far advanced to result in the production of a 
crop. 

A second disadvantage is, that the seeds will be 
covered at a depth so uneven that germination cannot 
fail to be uneven, though all the conditions for good 
germination should be favorable. Should they prove un- 
favorable, the evil will be aggravated. When seed is 



176 DRY LAND FARMING 

thus sown, it is covered by the harrow, or by the disc. 
The harrow will cover it unevenly. Some of the seeds 
will lie upon the surface. This means that in dry areas 
they will not sprout. Some of them may be covered so 
lightly that they will not sprout. Other seeds may ger- 
minate and yet root so near the surface that they 
cannot well resist the adverse influences of dry weather 
that follows, and all of them may be rooted too shallow 
to enable the plants to properly stand up and grow amid 
the vicissitude that may come to them because of the 
lack of rain. When the seed is covered with the disc, 
some of it may not be covered deeply enough. Much 
of it may be covered too deeply. There is a lack also 
of that compression which the disc drill gives that is so 
favorable in hastening germination. This lack of com- 
pression is equally present whether the seed will be 
covered by the smoothing harrow or by the disc. 

When grain is sown with the drill, it is deposited so 
deeply that the harrow does not readily uproot the 
plants when the grain is being harrowed subsequent to 
the appearance of the plants above the surface of the 
ground. Such harrowing is absolutely essential to suc- 
cessful crop production in dry areas. When the crop is. 
sown broadcast, the harrow will readily uproot the plants, 
or at least many of them, because of the shallowness of 
the rooting, and the more delicate the plants in the early 
stages of their growth, the more will they suffer from 
this cause. The better ability of plants that are deep- 
rooted to withstand severe harrowing is well illustrated 
in grain plants that have volunteered, as it were, from 
seeds of the previous crop shattered out upon the ground 
and buried deeply with the plow. In many cases, even 
the disc will fail to dislodge these. 

The advantages of drill seeding over broadcast seed- 
ing are so many and so apparent, that it would be correct 
to say that broadcast seeding has but a limited place un- 



SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS 



177 



der dry farming conditions. To say that it has no place, 
as some have said, is putting the matter strongly. There 
may be certain soil conditions at the time for sowing 
which would preclude the use of the drill, but would not 
at the same time forbid sowing on the broadcast plan. 
Such an occasion might arise from a soil so moist near 
the surface as to make it impossible to do good work 
with the drill. So much superior is drill sowing over 
broadcasting, that the aim should be to sow even such 
small seeds as alfalfa and grasses with some form of drill. 




THE DISC PRESS DRILL. 
Courtesy American Seeding Machine Co., Springfield, Ohio. 

The amounts of seeds to sow. — In dry areas the 
amount of seed that ought to be sown is worthy of the 
most careful study, because of the influence which the 
amount of seed sow^n exerts upon the crop 'yields. It 
would seem correct to say that in semi-arid areas the less 
the amount of the precipitation the less the amount 
of the seed that is called for. This conclusion is 
based upon the influence which the moisture supply 
present in the soil exerts on plant development. When 
the number of plants growing on a certain area is in 



178 DRY LAND FARMING 

excess of the moisture present to meet their needs in best 
form, their complete and perfect development is hindered. 
When the moisture supply is not sufficient, the plants 
will not grow to the usual size. The heads will be 
dwarfed in their development and the kernels in the 
heads will be deficient in number and also in size. 
Should the weather be excessively hot while the grain is 
nearing maturity, a thick stand of the plants is almost 
certain to result in shrunken grain and diminished yields. 

The greater tendency in plants to stool under the 
conditions of growth in dry areas as compared with those 
in humid areas, furnishes a second reason why a less 
amount of seed should be sown. Under normal condi- 
tion in humid areas, only a limited number of stems will 
be produced by each plant ; in dry areas the number will 
be much larger. The relative thickness of the plants 
in both instances affects the stooling. The fewer the 
I>lants of course the greater is the tendency in them to 
stool. The strong root system which is developed in 
plants relatively early in dry areas doubtless encour- 
ages abundant stooling. In humid areas such stooling 
arises in a considerable degree from a relatively small 
number of plants growing on the ground. Under some 
conditions this would lead to an excessive growth of 
straw, which would probably result in a diminished yield 
of grain. The tendency would also be present in some 
seasons to induce rust. These hazards are but little 
present in dry areas. Very large yields may frequently 
be obtained in the latter from a very light seeding of 
grain. 

It would not be possible to state the amounts of 
seed that will best meet the conditions in all instances 
in dry areas. The precipitation is of varying degrees in 
different localities and of varying amounts in the same 
locality. What would be a sufficiency of seed in one lo- 
cality would be an excessive amount in another. The 



SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS 179 

amount that would be enough under normal conditions 
would be too much under a deficiency in the precipita- 
tion. The condition of the preparation of the land also 
exerts an influence. The more perfect the preparation, 
the less is the amount of seed that is called for, as the 
greater relatively will be the number of the plants that 
will germinate under those conditions, and the more 
abundant will be the stooling. It is only possible, there- 
fore, to state approximately the amount of the seed that 
should be used. Some species of cereals stool more than 
others, and the same is true of varieties within the spe- 
cies. These peculiarities should not be ignored. Speak- 
ing in a general way, it would seem safe to say that the 
usual amounts of seed sown in dry areas should be about 
half the amounts of the same sow^n in humid areas. 

Much care should be exercised in determining the 
amounts of seed to sow. Because very large yields have 
been obtained from sowing very small quantities of seed 
under exceptional conditions, the mistake should not be 
made of reducing unduly the amount of the seed sown. 
The practise should be followed of sowing amounts a 
little in excess of what will best meet the needs of the 
conditions present, as all of the plants may not ger- 
minate, and very adverse weather conditions may destroy 
some of them. Should there be an excess of plants, it is 
best removed by the aid of the harrow, a result which 
is to be sought whenever such excess is present. 

The time to sow autumn grain. — The aim should be 
to sow autumn grain early and for the following reasons : 
(1) That root development may have time to become 
strong so as to enable it the better to withstand the 
vicissitudes of winter, and (2) that the development of 
the top may become such as to aid in furnishing protec- 
tion for the plants when passing through those periods 
of winter when a covering of snow may not be present. 
This will apply to all kinds of winter grain, as rye, wheat. 



180 DRY LAND FARMING 

barley, oats and vetches ; of these rye will best meet the 
hazard incurred from late sowing, because of the su- 
perior power which inheres within the grain itself to re- 
sist vicissitude. 

The sowing of winter grains possessed of sufficient 
hardiness to enable them to withstand the winter condi- 
tions may best begin in the northern areas of the semi- 
arid belt in early August. As the latitude grows less 
the time for sowing is later. To sow unduly early there 
are the following objections: (1) The plants may under 
unusually moist conditions reach the jointing stage at 
too early a period. (2) The autumn growth may exhaust 
the energies of the plant to such an extent that the growth 
the following spring is less vigorous than it would have 
been had such exhaustion not occurred. (3) In the case 
of wheat, the hazard may also be incurred of attack by 
the Hessian fly. 

The chief objection to late sowing lies in the haz- 
ards to which the young plants are exposed and which 
they cannot resist as stronger plants would. These haz- 
ards include: (1) Freezing through the intensity of the 
cold. (2) Destruction which may come to the plants 
through exposure to cold winds following quick removal 
of a snow covering. (3) The loss of the plants while 
the roots are not yet far from the surface through lack 
of moisture. (4) A lack of vigor in the growth that in 
many instances follows late sowing, even though the 
plants should survive the hazards incurred. 

The plan which sows the grain so late in the autumn 
that it will appear above the ground in the spring has met 
with some favor. It is not to be encouraged. Should 
the winter weather be so dry that germination would not 
take place until spring, the crop would not reach the 
earing stage. Nor can the plants, though germination 
should take place before spring, withstand drought as 
well as earlier sown and deeper rooted plants. The 



SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS 181 

yields from the former are usually less than those from 
the latter. 

Where the land has been properly prepared it will 
seldom happen that the moisture in the soil will not be 
sufficient to produce prompt germination. But this may 
occur in exceptional instances. When it does the question 
arises as to whether the sowing of the crop should or 
should not be deferred until rain falls. The safer plan 
will be to wait as long as it may be safe to wait without 
incurring hazard through undue lateness in sowing, and 
then to put in the seed. If rain comes the crop will prob- 
ably succeed. If it does not come, the only direct loss 
incurred is that of the seed and the labor of sowing, as 
the ground will remain in good shape for receiving other 
seed sown in the spring. 

The time to sow spring grain. — The aim should be to 
sow grain in the spring as early as the work can be prop- 
erly done, and without incurring hazard to the plants, 
and for the following reasons: (1) To insure germina- 
tion in the seed. (2) To give the plants all the benefits 
that can be obtained from a relatively long period of 
growth. (3) To mature them before the very hot and 
dry weather arrives. When the preparation of the land 
has been begun the previous year and under suitable 
conditions, it is very seldom indeed that the moisture in 
the soil will be too much lacking for germinating the 
seeds of cereals when these are sown in season. When 
the plants are given as long a season for growth as the 
conditions will admit of, they attain to a vigor of matur- 
ing that could not be reached save under very exceptional 
conditions by plants of the same variety that are sown 
iate. This means that the yields will be relatively less. 
When sown early, growth is so far advanced that, when 
the season of warm weather comes, which may always be 
looked for in midsummer in semi-arid countries, they will 



182 DRY LAND FARMING 

not be seriously harmed by it. Safety in this respect is 
further safeguarded by sowing early maturing varieties. 

The aim should also be to avoid sowing grain late, 
for the following reasons: (1) Because of the hazard 
which such "sowing brings to desirable germination. . (2) 
Because of the hazard that the crop may completely fail. 
(3) Because of the disturbance to the rotation that fol- 
lows failure. When grain is sown relatively late, much 
of the moisture may have gone from the top soil, hence 
when grain is deposited in the same it may be necessary 
to plant it too deeply to insure germination. In other 
instances the moisture may be so far gone that ger- 
mination cannot be secured as in the case of flax sown on 
spring-plowed land and under very dry conditions. In 
yet other instances, the germination secured is only par- 
tial. Some of the plants germinate and grow on. Some 
may germinate and then perish, other seeds may not 
germinate at all. The outcome is a stand so imperfect 
that a full crop cannot be produced. Of (!ourse, where 
germination does not follow, the crop is not produced, 
but even though the plants should start in good form, 
they are much more liable to fail subsequently under ad- 
verse conditions than plants sown early. A late sown 
crop may start well in dry areas, and yet fail so com- 
pletely subsequently that it will never come to fruition. 
When such failure results, the rotation planned may be 
seriously disturbed. The farmer may hesitate as to 
whether the crop should be left or disced over until the 
season is so far advanced that the larger portion of the 
moisture has left the soil. The crop may thus be lost, 
while the land is not left in the most desirable condition 
for receiving a crop the following season, because of the 
loss in moisture thus incurred. 

The conditions suitable for sowing include: (1) a 
properly prepared seed bed, and (2) sowing that is sea- 
sonable. A properly prepared seed bed includes: (1) one 



SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS 183 

that has been prepared long enough beforehand and un- 
der such conditions as will insure enough moisture to 
give the crop a good start, and (2) a soil that is in proper 
mechanical condition. It may not be possible in all in- 
stances to secure either when the plowing is not done 
until after the opening of spring. Nor may it be possi- 
ble under such conditions to bring it into a proper me- 
chanical condition ; that is, a condition of correct fria- 
bility. Friability, that is a fine condition as to pulveri- 
zation, is influenced by the amount of moisture present 
or absent as well as by the natural texture of the soil. 
An overwet condition of the soil is to be avoided when 
sowing as well as a condition overdry. Of the two evils 
it would be the greater. 

Sowing that is seasonable may be defined as sowing 
that is not so early or so late as to incur hazard to the 
kind of crop sown. Such hazard may come from cold 
and frost at the opening of spring or from lack of mois- 
ture late in the season or it may come from trying to grow 
the plant under conditions not suited to its needs. The 
hazard from cold and frost in early sowing is greatly in- 
fluenced by species and variety. After the opening of 
spring, hazard from the influences named would seldom 
affect spring wheat, for instance, adversely, howsoever 
early it might be sown, whereas oats sown thus early 
may be seriously injured. The order for sowing spring 
sown cereals is about as follows: Spring wheat, speltz 
and spring rye may be first sown and about equally early ; 
peas and barley may follow closely, especially when the 
barley is of the hulless variety ; oats may follow in close 
succession and after oats flax. Young plants that cannot 
endure freezing should be kept beneath the surface until 
the hazard from frost is practically past. Such are pota- 
toes and the more tender of the garden vegetables. 
Other plants, as rutabagas, should not be sown usually 
as early as they will grow, lest the quality should be af- 



184 DRY LAND FARMING 

fected adversely. But the aim should be to sow all crops 
as soon as possible after the proper season has arrived 
for sowing them. Promptness in sowing when that time 
comes, is doubly important in dry areas. 

The depth to sow. — The best depth at which to sow 
seed is influenced: (1) by the soil; (2) by the moisture 
present ; (3) by the character of the seed ; and (4) by the 
season. These influences may act separately or more or 
less in conjunction. 

The more loose and spongy the soil is and the great- 
er the degree of its porosity, the more deeply may seeds 
be planted and the greater also is the necessity for plant- 
ing them relatively deeply. In such soils, the young 
germs may readily push their way up to the light, a re- 
sult that would not be so easily attained by the same in 
stifif soils. Seeds, therefore, should be planted less deep- 
ly as the density of the soil increases. 

The moisture in the soil is a more important factor 
relatively in dry than in humid areas, and it exercises a 
correspondingly greater influence on the results. When 
moisture is sufBciently present, it is comparatively easy 
to determine the depth for planting seeds, providing their 
habits of growth are understood. It is different, how- 
ever, when the moisture is more or less lacking. If the 
moisture has left the upper section of the tilled area, to 
insure prompt germination the seed must be put down 
far enough to reach the moisture below. When seed is 
thus planted more deeply, the extent to which it will 
stand such increase in depth must be considered. About 
2 inches is a very suitable depth for planting several kinds 
of cereals in the semi-arid country, but should the mois- 
ture table be from 3 to 4 inches below the surface, it 
would be necessary to plant the seed thus deeply. Such 
cereals as wheat and speltz, also some others, would stand 
such deep planting, but this would not be true of flax. 



SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS 185 

Should the proper time come for sowing and should 
the moisture be so lacking as to prevent germination, it 
may be an open question as to whether sowing should 
be done or deferred for a time, at least until moisture 
comes. On the whole, it would seem better to sow, 
trusting to the hope that rain may come. Especially 
would this seem to be wise in the case of winter wheat, 
as, should it fail to grow, a crop can be obtained the fol- 
lowing summer from the same land, the only actual loss 
being that of the seed and the labor of sowing. In the 
spring the seed and the crop may also be lost, but this 
will occur but rarely, so rarely that the hazard from such 
sowing is not very great. The greatest hazard is in- 
curred from improper moisture conditions when there 
is enough moisture to start germination in part but not 
enough to complete the same. While it is possible to 
start germination followed by cessation of the same, and 
this in turn followed by a continuance in growth, and 
while this may be repeated more than once, growth under 
such conditions is never satisfactory. 

The seed exercises an important influence on the 
depth to which it should be planted. When the mois- 
ture conditions are correct it may be said without hazard 
that the larger the seed the more deeply as a rule may it 
be buried with safety. In humid climates, the aim is to 
bury small seeds, as timothy, shallow. In some instances 
they are given no other covering than that which rain 
brings ; in the same areas wheat is buried to the depth of 
two or more inches. This method of covering timothy 
and other small seeds in the semi-arid country would 
almost certainly fail because of the dry conditions that 
come later. While, therefore, the difference in the depths 
to which the various kinds of seed are to be planted be- 
cause of a difference in size, is not to be ignored, when 
planting them in dry areas the necessity is imperative to 
plant all seeds far enough below the surface to shield the 



186 DRY LAND FARMING 

young- plants that spring- from them sufficiently to pro- 
tect them at least measurably well from the harmful in- 
fluences of drought. 

The season may influence the depth to which seed 
should be sown by the amount of moisture which it puts 
into the soil or withholds from the same. In times of 
prolonged drought, the soil, other things being equal, 
dries to a greater depth than when the weather is the 
opposite in character. This, of course, influences the 
depth to which seeds must be buried, if they are to grow. 

The nurse crop and sowing. — In humid areas the 
rule is to sow grasses and clovers on land which 
will also sustain a grain crop the same season. The 
grass crop is thus established without losing the crop 
of one season in order to establish it. In some instances 
this would not be practicable in semi-arid regions. If 
two crops are sown thus, there is a contest between them 
for moisture during the period of growth. The grain 
crop, that is, the nurse crop, makes the more vigorous 
growth, and, therefore, it gets the larger share of the 
moisture to the injury of the other crop in proportion 
as its power exceeds that of the other to draw on the 
moisture in the soil. The nurse crop also weakens the 
other crop by its shade in proportion as it is strong or 
weak. Moreover, while the nurse crop is maturing, its 
draughts upon soil moisture are unusually large, leaving 
so much less for the grass or clover crop at a critical 
time. The hazard is present that when the nurse crop 
is harvested the plants will succumb to the hot sun 
which shines down upon them at that season from a 
torrid sky. In humid areas these influences are also 
operative, but not to the extent, save in a few instances, 
of destroying the crop that is being nursed. 

It may be legitimate in dry areas to use a light nurse 
crop (1), when sowing certain grasses for making pas- 
tures of more or less permanence, and (2) when the soil 



SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS 187 

on which the crop is sown is so light as to lift with the 
wind. Under snch conditions it may be proper to sow 
a few pounds of oats to the acre with the understanding 
that the oats are to be prevented from maturing by graz- 
ing them, or by cutting them for hay while yet green, as 
may be deemed best. 

In but few instances should grasses or clover be 
sown with a nurse crop in the semi-arid belt. It may 
be legitimate to sow them thus under some conditions, 
where the normal rainfall is 15 to 20 inches, and espe- 
cially when it approaches the latter figure. But when it 
is less than 15 inches, the instances are rare when such 
sowing is legitimate. It may be possible so sow alfalfa 
with a nurse crop and get a stand, even when the rainfall 
is less than 15 inches, but the wisdom of sowing it thus 
is to be doubted, as the plants will have less vigor than 
if the crop were sown alone, and this will react adversely 
on the yields in the future. The conditions, therefore, in 
the semi-arid belt almost completely eliminate the nurse 
crop from the system of farming. 

The time for planting. — The time for planting, as 
well as that for seeding, is influenced by: (1) the crop; 
(2) the soil ; (3) the season. It should, as a rule, be done 
relatively early as compared with planting in the humid 
areas. 

The species and variety of the product planted exer- 
cises a marked influence on the best time at which to 
plant in semi-arid areas. The aim should be to grow 
such species only as are relatively hardy for the locality, 
and the same is true of the variety. For this reason 
both species and variety should be given more care and 
study than may be necessary when growing the same in 
the semi-arid belt. To attempt to grow species or variety 
where the conditions are not fitted, or even illy fitted for 
growing them, would be a great mistake under any con- 



188 DRY LAND FARMING 

ditions, but doubly so under those which obtain in semi- 
arid countries. 

The soil is usually in a condition to admit of plant- 
ing seed earlier under dry than under humid conditions. 
This arises in part from the peculiarities of the soil, but 
more from the limited precipitation that usually falls 
early in the season. In the semi-arid belt it seldom hap- 
pens that the usual season for planting is delayed by 
undue wetness in the soil, but it does sometimes happen 
that delay follows because of lack of moisture in the soil. 
Should the season for planting come in the spring, and 
yet the soil is too lacking in moisture to bring, germina- 
tion to the seed, the wisdom of planting or of withhold- 
ing the same until moisture comes will depend somewhat 
on the usual season of normal rainfall. When this comes 
during the period of growth, it may frequently be wiser 
to plant than not to plant, as seed in the soil when rain 
falls will usually start more quickly than seed put into 
the soil after rain. But the hazard should be avoided 
in planting, as in sowing, of putting seed into soil when 
in a condition to start germination without perfecting 
the same. 

The season, of course, influences the time for plant- 
ing equally with the time for sowing. This influence 
alone may make a difference of at least several weeks 
in the best time at which to plant a certain variety of 
seed. Latitude also is, of course, a potent influence, and 
so is elevation. Both must be taken into account when 
determining the best time at which to plant. Altitude 
alone may make a difference of several weeks in the 
favorable season for planting in the same locality. Among 
the reasons why planting may be done in soils less warm 
than those in humid areas, and also relatively earlier, are 
the following: (1) The crops planted are intrinsically 
hardier, and, therefore, can endure more hardship; (2) 
the soils are less moist, and, because of this, lack of 



SOWING AND PLANTING IN DRY AREAS 189 

warmth in them is less hazardous than lack of warmth 
in the same in humid areas; (3) the injury from frost in 
dry areas is much less than injury from frost of the 
same temperature would be in humid areas. It has been 
noticed frequently that the thermometer may fall several 
degrees below the freezing point, especially in mountain 
areas, without injury to the vegetation. This result fol- 
lows, probably, because of the more dry condition of the 
atmosphere. When plants are damaged by frost, they 
also recover more readily than plants thus injured in 
humid areas. This furnishes an argument in favor of 
early planting. 

The methods of planting. — The methods of planting 
will consider: (1) planting in hills; (2) planting in 
drills, and (3) planting on the broadcast plan. From 
what has been said, the place for broadcasting will be 
very limited. 

Hill planting should be practised in preference to 
drill planting where it will answer as well all the ends 
sought. It has the following advantages over drill 
planting: (1) The ground is stirred over a larger area 
of the surface, which means that the conservation of 
moisture may be more complete on the whole ; (2) the 
crowding of the plants is more easily prevented, which 
makes easier the regulation of the distribution of mois- 
ture, but too much must not be made of this advantage ; 
(3) the cleaning of the soil may be more complete than 
would be possible when the crop is planted in drills with- 
out the aid of considerable hand labor; (4) there is also 
some saving in the amount of seed sown. 

Drill planting is, in a sense, necessary under certain 
conditions, even with some crops that are frequently 
grown in hills. Take corn, for instance. When grown for 
fodder it is rather more easily harvested with the corn 
harvester. There is some saving also in the labor of 
sowing and harvesting. When the crop is listed drill- 



190 DRY LAND FARMING 

ing is essential. The same is true of that system which 
drops such seeds as corn and potatoes in the open fur- 
row while sod is being broken. Certain other crops 
must be grown in drills rather than hills from their 
nature and habits of growth. Such are rape and millet. 
But these come under the head of crops sown rather 
than planted. Many of the crops planted in dry areas 
will be grown in hills rather than in drills. 

Planting on the broadcast plan will virtually have 
no place in the dry area, nor has it much of a place any- 
where. But sowing thus may sometimes be given a place 
in dry areas with certain crops that are usually sown in 
rows. It is easily possible to obtain a fair crop of ruta- 
bagas, for instance, when the seed is broadcasted on new- 
ly plowed breaking. The same is true of field beans. 
These are crude methods, but they may help out the 
settler who is just beginning work on his homestead. 



CHAPTER X 
CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 

The range of the crops that may be grown in dry 
areas is wide, but not so wide as in humid areas. This 
applies not only to species, but also to varieties within 
the species. It would be fair to concede that dry areas 
have adaptation less high than humid areas: (1) for 
growing hay and pasture plants ; (2) for growing roots 
and tubers; (3) for growing fruits and vegetables, and 
(4) for growing forest trees and windbreaks. This is 
not true, however, of small grains and of certain culti- 
vated crops nor is it true of all kinds of hay, for the 
average yield of alfalfa in dry areas is more than the 
average yield of many hay crops in humid areas. But it 
is in the production of small grains that the dry areas 
chiefly excel. The labor of growing these crops is rela- 
tively greater in dry areas, but the compensation comes 
in part in the large yields obtained, in part from the little 
loss of the crop and in labor from bad weather, and in 
the slight loss in fertility from leaching. 

Crops that should be grown. — The crops that should 
be grown are the following: (1) Those that will grow 
best under a light precipitation ; (2) those that will best 
endure a dry atmosphere ; (3) those that mature early 
rather than late. Some crops that should not be grown 
will also be considered. 

The amount of precipitation called for to grow crops 
of different species varies greatly. Clover crops call for 
a higher precipitation than alfalfa. Oat crops need more 
rain than wheat or rye. Corn calls for more moisture 
than the non-saccharine sorghums. Cottonwood trees 
must have more moisture to grow them at their best 
than white willows, and white willows do not require 
so much as diamond willows. Crops of the same species 



193 DRY LAND FARMING 

may also differ much in the amount of moisture called 
for to grow them in their several varieties. Durum 
wheat, for instance, can better endure dry conditions 
than fife wheat. Western rye grass can stand more 
drought than timothy, and common red clover calls for 
less moisture precipitation than alsike clover. The con- 
trasts mentioned are not in all instances the outcome of 
a greater or a less amount of water actually used in 
growing the crop. It may and does arise in part from 
the greater power which some crops have to gather 
moisture from lower depths than others. Thus alfalfa 
can draw moisture from lower depths than clover, and 
rye from lower depths than oats. Those crops, there- 
fore, that have proved best adapted to succeed under 
dry conditions, ghould be given the preference in semi- 
arid regions. 

Much that has been said with reference to the ability 
of plants to grow on a limited rainfall, or to the lack of 
the same in them, will apply equally to the ability of the 
same plants, or to the lack of ability in them, to endure 
dry atmospheric conditions. The crops that do not 
usually grow at their best in a dry atmosphere include 
the Canadian field pea, the common vetch, clover in many 
of its varieties, flax when grown for fiber and such veg- 
etables as turnips. This does not mean that these crops 
cannot be grown under dry atmospheric conditions, but 
that they cannot be so well grown under these condi- 
tions as under conditions the opposite. The temperature 
exercises an important influence. Peas and vetches, for 
instance, will flourish much better in the higher eleva- 
tions where the temperatures are moderate than in the 
river basins where they are hot. These differences 
should all be recognized when growing plants in dry 
areas, and the farmer should govern himself accordingly. 

In dry areas crops that mature early rather than late 
should be given the right of way, so to speak. This will 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 193 

apply to both species and varieties. All winter crops, 
as, for instance, winter wheat, winter barley, winter rye 
and winter oats, mature earlier than spring-sown varie- 
ties of the same. This means that these should be grown 
in preference to the spring-sown varieties whenever the 
climatic conditions will admit of growing them with 
measurable success in the winter form. These will all 
mature earlier when grown in the winter form than if 
sown in the spring, and as a result they are injured much 
less by the drought and heat of the late summer than 
the same species when they are sown in the spring form. 
This means, therefore, that such species as mature early 
should be given the preference. It means also that early 
maturing varieties within the species should be given 
the preference, other things being equal. The crops 
that should not be grown under semi-arid conditions in- 
clude all crops that call for a copious rainfall and a moist 
atmosphere to grow them at their best. This will narrow 
considerably the number of species that may be grown, 
and also the number of the varieties. It will exclude 
nearly all varieties of crops that flourish at their best 
under moist conditions. None of these should be grown 
other than in a tentative way under dry land conditions. 
To attempt, for instance, to grow rape, kale and serra- 
della extensively in semi-arid areas by the same methods 
under which they are grown in humid" areas would be 
most unwise, notwithstanding the fact should not be over- 
looked that on some of the higher elevations these crops 
may be grown with a fair measure of success, even in 
the presence of dry atmospheric conditions. 

Cereal crops that may be grown. — In this discussion 
will be considered the place for the following cereal crops 
in dry areas, viz. : (1) wheat; (2) flax; (3) rye; (4) bar- 
ley; (5) oats; (6) speltz, and (7) peas. Buckwheat may 
also be grown where the elevation is not too high, but 
experience in growing it in such areas is limited as yet. 



194 DRY LAND FARMING 

All of these may be grown with more or less success 
under semi-arid conditions. The winter wheat crop will 
always be the leading money crop among small grains 
in many semi-arid areas. This is owing to the fact, first, 
that it always finds a ready market, and usually at good 
prices ; second, that the yields are generally more sure 
than from the spring varieties, since it ripens in advance 
of the hottest, and especially of the driest, weather, and 
they are also considerably larger; third, owing to the 
time when it is sown and harvested, it aids in the better 
distribution of the labor of the farm, and, fourth, it aids in 
the cleaning of the land through the specific methods of 
preparing the soil which it calls for. This does not 
mean that spring wheat may not be grown in the same 
areas, and in some instances even more successfully than 
winter wheat, but it does mean that in a very large por- 
tion of the semi-arid area winter wheat will be a safer 
crop than spring wheat. The winter wheat crop has 
special adaptation for following summer-fallow, as 
it begins to use the moisture that has been stored up in 
the soil at a much earlier period than it can be drawn 
upon by any spring crop, should the same be planted on 
the land. Where the winter temperatures are very ex- 
treme, however, winter wheat may not be successfully 
grown in the dry country, unless some kind of winter 
protection is furnished to the crop. 

Spring wheat will be an important crop in all time 
in the dry country, but in the larger portion thereof it 
will be relatively less important than winter wheat. It 
will be less important than the former in proportion as 
the winters are mild and in proportion to the extent to 
which the precipitation falls in the autumn and winter 
months. As previously intimated, the winter climate in 
some parts of the semi-arid belt is so severe that winter 
wheat is not an assured success without it is in some 
way protected in winter. Spring wheat, therefore, 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 195 

will always be more important, relatively, than win- 
ter wheat in much of the dry areas of the Dakotas, 
and in the eastern portion of the dry areas in western 
Canada. Precipitation increases in the autumn and win- 
ter, as the Cascade Mountains are approached. The 
areas, therefore, other things being equal, that have the 
lowest adaptation for growing spring wheat are those 
nearest to the Cascades, and the measure of suitability 
should be increased as these are receded from. Where 
the bulk of the precipitation falls in winter, too much 




DRY LAND WHEAT NEAR KALISPELL, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Great Northeru Railway Co. 



of it leaves the soil before crops of spring wheat may be 
matured. 

The place for flax in much of the dry area is a very 
important one, but it will not be of equal significance in 
all areas, it grows in reasonably cool rather than in 
warm temperatures. Because of this, the growth of 
flax will be pursued to a much greater extent in the 
northern areas of the semi-arid belt than in those farther 



196 DRY LAND FARMING 

southward. As the latitude recedes toward the equator, 
the elevations most suitable to the growing of flax 
ascend. The crop when grown in dry areas is produced 
almost entirely for the grain. The conditions are too 
dry for growing the best quality of fiber. In the future 
large quantities of flax will be grown in the Dakotas, 
as in the past. The adaptation of these states for grow- 
ing flax has been abundantly proved. Many of the 
farmers, however, have made the grievous mistake of 
sowing flax infected with wilt. Such seed was in very 
many instances sown unconsciously at the first. Later, 
in some instances, it was the outcome of deliberate 
carelessness. This means that much of the area formerly 
devoted to growing flax crops cannot be so used for a 
term of years, until the wilt dies out in the land. The 
farmers who try to grow flax in new areas should profit 
from the knowledge of this experience. 

Montana will doubtless become a great flax pro- 
ducing state. The conditions on Montana benches are 
more than ordinarily favorable. In some instances rec- 
ord-breaking crops have already been obtained. That 
portion of the Canadian provinces in the dry area of 
the Canadian west have adaptation equally high. 

Winter rye will doubtless prove a more sure crop 
and over a wider area than any other cereal that can be 
grown in the dry area. The nearest competitor to it in 
this respect is probably speltz. Rye can grow under con- 
ditions more dry than would be suitable for wheat, and 
it is less harmed by the extremes of heat and cold. Bet- 
ter crops of grain will be obtained from rye in the north- 
ern areas of the dry belt than in the southern, as in 
the case of wheat. But when winter rye is grown 
mainly to provide pasture, it may furnish more of the 
same in many of the areas southward, for in these it 
has a longer time in which to grov/. 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 197 

While the winter rye crop may be grown success- 
fully in areas too dry and cold for wheat, there are 
conditions of drought and cold in which it will not suc- 
ceed. Under some conditions it may not germinate in 
the autumn from lack of moisture. Under other con- 
ditions it may germinate so feebly that the plants cannot 
withstand the injury which may come to them from 
winds, cold and dry. Spring rye may be grown over 
an area equally wide, but it will not yield so well, as 
a rule, as the winter variety. 

Barley in some of its varieties will grow well in 
dry areas. The variety that has shown highest and 
most general adaptation is that known as the white 
hulless, a variety without beards on the heads or hull 
on the grain. The merit of this grain for dry areas is 
enhanced by the early season at which it matures, which 
brings it to the ripening stage before the weather of 
summer reaches its hottest, and especially its driest, 
stage. As this barley is not suitable for malting, it is 
to be grown for feeding rather than for commercial 
purposes. Some varieties may also be grown success- 
fully for malting, but probably not over areas so wide 
as the hulless varieties. The Mensury, which is a 
six-rowed variety and bearded, has shown at least fair 
adaptation for being grown over the more humid por- 
tions of the dry region. This variety will grow to a 
greater height than the white hulless, which in some 
instances is so short that reaping is difficult, but the 
latter will grow under conditions more dry than would 
be suitable for the former. These barleys, as in the 
case of other cereals, have highest adaptation for the 
northern areas of the dry belt, and for the elevated 
plateaus of the states farther south. Some winter vari- 
eties may be grown where the winters are mild. Barley 
will be a relatively important crop in all the future in 
dry areas, more especially for food uses. 



198 DRY LAND FARMING 

The place for the oat crop in dry areas is important, 
but less so relatively than in humid areas. This arises 
from the somewhat greater difficulty found in growing 
it. It is more easily injured by frost in the spring than 
certain other cereals, hence it cannot be sown safely 
quite so early, which hinders it from making use of the 
moisture in the soil at so early a period. Moreover, the 
oat crop calls for relatively more water to grow it than 
these, hence the adaptation of the oat crop for being 
grown over wide areas of the dry country is not so 
complete as that of some various other cereals. In some 
areas the winter oat may be grown where the spring 
varieties would not succeed. Especially is this true 
southward, where the bulk of the precipitation comes 
in the late autumn and winter months. As a rule, the 
varieties that usually prove the most satisfactory are 
those which call for a relatively short period in which 
to grow and which mature relatively early. 

Speltz is a hardy and rugged grain. Its distribution 
in the dry belt will fully equal that of rye, and will 
probably exceed that of wheat. It has much power to 
endure cold when the plants are young, hence it may 
be sown early — as early, as a rule, as it will be proper 
to work the soil. It would also seem safe to say that 
it will be less injured by dry and hot conditions than 
most other grains. When its properties come to be 
better understood than at present, the crop will be more 
extensively grown than has been the case previously in 
the semi-arid area. The grain furnishes good food for 
all classes of domestic animals kept upon the farm, when 
properly fed to them. It is especially valuable in fur- 
nishing food for horses. This crop will probably prove 
more satisfactory southward in the dry area than other 
cereals, because of its ability to stand up under both 
heat and drought. 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 199 

The field pea, very frequently designated the Cana- 
dian field pea, will come to be extensively grown in 
dry areas, but not in all parts of the same. The pea 
cannot endure the same amount of drought and heat 
as speltz, for instance, hence its best growth will be in 
the more humid portions of the dry belt, and especially 
where the elevation is so high that extremely hot weather 
seldom or never comes. The soil in the semi-arid coun- 
try is well supplied with the food constituents that will 
produce large yields in grain from peas when grown un- 
der proper conditions. On some of the mountain plateaus, 
very large crops of peas have been grown, and also on 
the prairies in the northern part of the dry region. But 
where the precipitation runs quite low, the attempt 
should not be made to grow peas. Southward the cow- 
pea may be grown in certain areas, but it is not really 
a drought-resistant plant. 

Fodder crops that may be grown. — This discussion 
will consider the place: (1) for corn; (2) for sorghum; 
(3) for the non-saccharine sorghums, and (4) for millets 
and also mixed grains. It will be observed that fodder 
crops in the discussion means such crops as are grown 
mainly for fodder, but which may also furnish some 
grain. For instance, the corn referred to may have on 
it nubbins, that is, small ears of various sizes bearing 
mature grain. In the semi-arid area, the question of 
providing fodder is one of much significance, since the 
hay-producing plants are not numerous. These crops, 
except in the case of the small grains, call for cultivation 
while in process of growth. 

The corn crop is destined to be the most important 
among fodder crops that can be grown over fully two- 
thirds of the dry area. In the remaining third, that is, 
in the third that lies southward, the sorghums will, to 
a large extent, at least, take its place. It should be 
remembered, however, that corn, even for fodder, cannot 



200 



DRY LAND FARMING 



be certainly depended on to escape the autumn frosts 
at elevations much beyond 4,000 feet above sea level. 
The high adaptation of corn for such production is found 
in the fact: (1) that it will furnish more fodder than 
any other plant that can be grown in the area specified ; 
(2) that it furnishes fodder of an excellent quality; (3) 
that it is one of the surest of the crops that may be 
grown, and (4) that growing it puts the ground in a 
good condition for growing a crop of small grain. Of 
course, the yields obtained will vary much, but not less 
than two tons of cured fodder should be obtained per 



»o*3g% 




i'itkj- fr.ji^.... /Li.,^ ffiailrtif"' 



THE DEERE 14-TOOTH STEEL LEVER CULTIVATOR. 
Courtesy Deere & Webber Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 



acre yearly. The quality of the fodder is superior, be- 
cause of the relatively large amount of leaf growth which 
it contains, because of the fineness of the stalks, and be- 
cause of the bright character of the fodder, cured as it is 
in a dry atmosphere and in the absence of rain. It is 
one of the surest of the crops grown, because of the 
cultivation that it calls for while it is being grown. This 
makes it possible to grow a crop under conditions that 
would not produce a grain crop. The cultivation given to 
the corn aids in so conserving moisture that a crop of 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 201 

grain may be made to follow it almost any season with- 
out the hazard of failure. 

It is not to be understood that corn can be grown 
so successfully in the semi-arid country as in the corn 
belt. So large a tonnage of forage cannot be obtained 
from it, nor so large a yield of ears. In its habit of 
growth it is more dwarfish, and only quick maturing 
varieties can be grown in the more northerly areas of 
the semi-arid country. In much of the same it is neces- 
sary that it will mature in from 90 to 120 days in order 
to escape the frosts of autumn. The coolness of the 
nights are against the rapid growth of the corn, but 
the long hours of the summer sunlight tend to counter- 
act that handicap. 

While the corn crop in the dry area will probably 
be grown more for fodder than for any other purpose, 
this does not mean that it will not be grown in numerous 
areas mainly for the grain. The yields, while relatively 
less than in the corn belt, are relatively large in propor- 
tion to the production of stalk, hence, when the farmer 
can afford the time, he may husk his corn, but, since it 
is labor-saving to feed it in the bundle and since it is 
greatly important that large areas shall be grown, be- 
cause of the influence which such growth will have upon 
grain production, it is probable that for every acre that 
is husked several acres will be fed without husking. In 
some instances, also, small varieties may be grown and 
grazed down by sheep or swine when ripe. 

The place for sorghum is not so wide in the semi- 
arid region as for corn. In northern areas the mean 
temperature is too low to grow sorghum at its best. In 
southern areas some of the non-saccharine sorghums will 
do better, as, for instance, Milo maize and Kafir corn. 
The place for sorghum will be in the central portions 
of the semi-arid country rather than in the extremes 
thereof, and in the warm rather than the cool portions 



202 DRY LAND FARMING 

of the same. The place for the non-saccharine sorghums 
in the dry region covers a relatively large area. These 
include Kafir corn, Jerusalem corn, brown durra and Milo 
maize. Of these Milo maize stands highest in favor, but 
Kafir corn will also be grown over wide areas. All these 
plants have much power to resist drought, and especially 
the two last named. Both will be grown to provide fod- 
der and also grain for various classes of farm animals, at 
least as far north as the parallel 40, that is, as far north 
as the latitude of Denver. 

The place for millets in the dry country will depend 
much on the variety grown, and on the manner of grow- 
ing them. The broom corn variety or varieties have 
highest adaptation for such areas among the varieties at 
present grown. In order to grow them at their best, it 
will probably be necessary to plant the seed in rows and 
to cultivate them more or less during the period of 
growth. When grown thus, it would seem safe to say 
that this class of millets may be grown over nearly all 
of the dry area. The same may also prove at least meas- 
urably true of some other varieties. 

Certain grains may also be grown in admixture to 
provide fodder and also hay. The combinations best 
suited to such growth are not well understood as yet. 
It is probable, however, that the Canadian field pea and 
oats, or the same and barley of the hulless varieties, will 
stand highest in favor except where the bulk of the pre- 
cipitation comes in winter. In such areas the sand vetch 
and some winter cereal may yet be extensively grown. 

Hay crops that may be grown. — Hay crops cannot 
be grown in so great variety in the semi-arid as in the 
humid regions, nor can yields as large be obtained ex- 
cept in the case of alfalfa. Hay plants must be grown 
where the land is to be tilled, or some substitute must 
take the place of these. Many grass crops call for much 
water to grow them in paying quantities. The same is 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 203 

true of clovers. While they are growing, it is not prac- 
ticable to cultivate them so as to conserve moisture, save 
in exceptional instances, hence it is not possible to in- 
crease the yields to anything like the same extent as in 
the case of other crops in the growing of which it is 
possible, to some extent, to conserve moisture by culti- 
vative processes during a part, at least, of the period of 
growth. 

The grass plants that will not grow at their best 
in semi-arid areas include almost all, if not, indeed, all 
varieties that have been grown under domestication. 
Nevertheless, some of these may grow reasonably well in 
favored situations, as at certain of the foothills and in 
other locations where subterranean waters serve in a 
greater or lesser degree to sub-irrigate the land. The 
yields from native grasses on ordinary soils are not 
enough to justify long continuance in seeking hay from 
such a source. The rainfall is not enough to grow clovers 
at their best. Sainfoin is more promising, but it has not 
been much tried in the semi-arid country. 

Among the grass plants of most promise for hay are : 
Russian brome, slender wheat grass, frequently called 
western rye grass, tall oat grass, and meadow fescue. 
The best distribution of these is not known at the present 
time. Russian brome may be grown over much of the 
dry area, but it grows much better over the northern 
than over the southern portions of the same. Without 
some kind of renewal, it does not continue to give large 
yields of hay for more than, say, two crops. Slender 
wheat grass will produce relatively fair yields for a con- 
siderable period. It will grow under very dry condi- 
tions, but does not grow so well in hot southern areas 
as in those farther north. This grass soon becomes very 
woody if not cut promptly at a certain stage in its growth. 
Tall oat grass may be grown over a large portion of the 
dry region. The adaptation is probably more suited to 



204 DRY LAND FARMING 

mild climates rather than to those that are severe, hence 
this grass will be grown southward rather than north- 
ward. While this grass may be made to serve a useful 
end in many areas, it is not probable that its popularity 
will ever reach high water mark in comparison with 
some other grasses, because of some lack in palatability 
of a high order. The ability of the grass to stand hard 
conditions is very considerable. Meadow fescue would 
seem best adapted to central portions of the dry area and 
probably to those north of these. The salt bush, some- 
times called salt sage, may be grown with some success 
in very dry areas. It is not easily established, but when 
once well started will, under some conditions, reseed 
itself. It will provide both hay and pasture, but it is a 
woody plant. The indefiniteness of statement about 
these grasses is justified, on the ground that they have 
been so little tested as yet in semi-arid areas. 

Alfalfa is undoubtedly destined to become the hay 
crop of the semi-arid country, and for the following rea- 
sons : (1) It may be grown successfully over nearly all 
the tillable portions of the semi-arid area. Where the 
rainfall averages not less than 10 inches per year, the 
possibility of growing alfalfa successfully for hay should 
not be questioned. (2) The yields to be expected from 
it will probably be larger than those obtained from any 
other valuable hay plant that can be grown. While those 
yields will vary much, it would seem safe to set them 
down as being not much less than two tons per acre year- 
ly on an average, after the crop has become established. 
(3) It will add largely to the nitrogen content in the soil 
by taking the same from the air and depositing it in 
the soil. (4) It will keep the land well supplied with 
humus in the large store of vegetable matter which it 
furnishes in its roots. No other plant grown in dry 
areas can equal it in this respect. (5) It will act as a 
subsoiler in the extent to which its roots permeate the 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 205 

same. They fill it with openings in the form of numer- 
ous channels as their roots decay, and as rain falls in any 
large quantity on the surface it sinks down in these open- 
ings, adding to the store of moisture in the subsoil. (6) 
It is at least equal, if not superior, in nutrition and pal- 
atability to any other hay plant that can be grown in 
the semi-arid country. All these conditions point to the 
future supremacy of alfalfa as a hay crop and probably 
to some extent as a pasture crop in these areas. 

Some of the cereals will be grown more or less for 
hay. This means that they will be cut at some stage 
short of maturity. While all the cereals suitable for 
such a use will be grown more or less to provide such 
hay, wheat, oats and barley will be more frequently de- 
voted to such a use than the other cereals. If peas are 
grown for hay, it will be in admixture with other grain. 
Where alfalfa can be grown reasonably well, hay from 
cereals is too costly a substitute. White hulless barley 
ranks high in suitability for furnishing such hay. 

Roots and tubers that may be grown. — These two 
classes of roots will be considered separately, and also 
certain hazards to be avoided in growing them. Both 
classes call for cultivation while they are being grown, 
hence under dry land conditions they are more safe than 
some other lines of production. The term "roots" is here 
used in the sense of field roots grown for live stock. 
These include turnips and rutabagas, mangels and sugar 
beets, also carrots. The habits of growth in rutabagas 
and turnips do not differ greatly. The distribution for 
both, therefore, is about the same. Neither endures well 
hot summer temperatures, hence it will be at once ap- 
parent that the place for both is in northern areas of the 
dry country, and on the elevated plateaus in other sec- 
tions. Good crops of these may be grown at elevations 
more than 5,000 feet above sea level. These plants, 
therefore, will furnish food for live stock in areas that 



206 DRY LAND FARMING 

would be too cold for the safe production of fodder corn. 
The place for mangels and sugar beets covers a wider 
area than that for turnips and rutabagas, as the former 
will stand more heat than the latter without languish- 
ing. Both may be grown in nearly all the tillable areas 
of the semi-arid belt, save on the very high elevations. 
In such locations they may take injury from frost both 
in the spring and in the autumn. 

The place for carrots is much wider than for any of 
the classes of field roots discussed above. They will 
stand more frost than turnips without injury, and more 
drought than mangels or sugar beets. Western soils, 
generally speaking, also seem very well adapted to their 
growth. 

But two classes of tubers will be extensively grown 
in the semi-arid west, at least for many years to come. 
These are potatoes and artichokes. The Irish potato is 
referred to. Sweet potatoes and peanuts may be grown 
to a greater or lesser extent in the central and southern 
portions of the dry belt, but it will be under irrigation 
rather than in its absence. 

The Irish potato may be grown successfully on a 
relatively small amount of moisture. This characteristic 
makes it one of the safest crops for the settler to plant 
on spring breaking. It does not succeed so well, how- 
ever, in the central areas of the dry belt as in those 
farther north, except on the high elevations, and on these 
the hazard of injury from frost is imminent. In the 
southern areas of the dry region, it does not succeed 
so well as in the central areas. The advantage that the 
northern area has over the central and southern comes 
chiefly from the cooler temperature which it possesses. 
Because of this fact, the plan is good which aims to bring 
seed from the north every two or three years. The 
short season in which the potato matures, especially in 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 207 

the earlier varieties, gives the crop high adaptation for 
certain portions of the semi-arid country. 

Artichokes will only, or at least mainly, be grown 
as food for live stock and especially for swine. This fact 
will tend much to restrict the area of their growth. Nev- 
ertheless they can be grown over wide areas of the semi- 
arid country. The mild character of the winters in much 
of this area also favors the easy harvesting of the crop 
when grown, as it may be harvested by swine, even 
during the winter months, should this be desired. 

Peanuts may be grown in many areas where the 
moisture supply is limited and where the climate is suf- 
ficiently mild. They may be grown for live stock, for 
the market and also to provide food for live stock, espe- 
cially swine, which feed upon them where they grow. 

In growing these crops, certain hazards are to be 
avoided. Unless germination is secured with consider- 
able promptness, the hazard is present that in a very dry 
season it may not be secured at all, hence the importance 
of having the ground well prepared where these crops 
are to be planted. Unless they are started relatively 
early, the hazard is present that the plants will not be 
able to make sufficient progress when the dry weather 
of summer comes to insure proper development. The 
hazard from early freezing is to be considered. This is 
greatest in the potato and the artichoke, and least in 
the carrot. Turnips will stand very hard frost in the 
spring, but in the autumn they will stand much freezing, 
especially those of the rutabaga types. Mangels and 
sugar beets will not stand much freezing, either fall or 
spring. 

It is to be remembered that though all these crops 
can be grown in the semi-arid country, it is not prob- 
able that they will be extensively grown for the market 
unless in the case of the Irish potato. All these crops 
may be more successfully grown under irrigation. This 



208 DRY LAND FARMING 

applies also to the Irish potato, except in so far as quality 
is concerned. The quality of the potato grown without 
irrigation is much superior. For use on the farm, how- 
ever, all these crops may be grown with more or less ad- 
vantage. But their introduction will probably be gradual. 

Fruits and vegetables that may be grown. — The 
discussion will dwell: (1) on the place for small fruits 
in dry areas;. (2) the place for large fruits; (3) the place 
for vegetables, and (4) the place for fruits that may yet 
be introduced. As these have not as yet been grown 
over much of the dry area, the discussion on the growing 
of fruits and vegetables cannot be so complete as could 
be desired. It is not to be expected that these products 
will become staples in the semi-arid country, nor is it to 
be expected that they will be grown extensively for the 
market. It would not be easy to grow them under dry 
conditions so as to compete with the same under condi- 
tions where irrigation is practised. This does not mean, 
however, that they may not be grown in many instances 
at a profit, for this has been done both in the line of 
fruits and vegetables, even where the annual precipita- 
tion has been less than 15 inches. 

The small fruits that may be grown include cur- 
rants, gooseberries, raspberries and strawberries, and 
along with these may be included plums and cherries, 
and also grapes. The currants and berries mentioned 
may be grown in practically all the tillable portions of 
the semi-arid country, and the same is true of plums. 
Cherries, however, will not endure the winters in the 
northeastern portions of the semi-arid area. Whether 
raspberries will have to be laid down in winter and cov- 
ered, and whether strawberries must be covered to in- 
sure a crop, will depend on the latitude. That all these 
may be grown in ample supply to meet the needs of the 
farmer need not be questioned, but the best methods of 
growing them are not generally understood as yet as 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 209 

applicable to dry conditions. Nor has proper preparation 
been made for growing them, as on the bench lands 
where the winds blow freely and strongly it will be 
necessary to grow them inside of shelter belts when 
these have been provided. It will also be a decided safe- 
guard where water can be readily obtained to have a 
small reservoir supplied by the windmill which lifts the 
water supply. This water reserve may not be needed in 
all seasons, but in those that are exceptionally dry 
it may be drawn upon, especially at that season when the 
crop is maturing and when it is more liable to hazard 
than at any other time. In some instances, grapes, if 
grown, would have to be covered in winter, and in the 
northerly areas it is questionable if summer frosts will 
admit of the complete maturing of the fruit. 

By large fruits is meant such fruits as apples, pears, 
peaches and quinces. Apples especially may be grown 
in much of the semi-arid area, pears less well and peaches 
only in southerly areas. Some good apple orchards have 
been made a success commercially where the rainfall 
averages about 15 inches annually. Under such condi- 
tions, however, there is some hazard that the crop may 
suffer somewhat from lack of moisture during the ripen- 
ing period. Under other conditions, as when subter- 
ranean water is near, this hazard may not be present. 

Much of what has been said of small fruits will 
apply to the growing of vegetables, but of course it will 
not be necessary to confine the growing of these within 
shelter belts, nor is the severity of the winters to be 
reckoned with as in the case of fruits. Nearly all kinds 
of vegetables may be grown that belong to the temperate 
zone, but not so as to compete successfully in the market 
with vegetables grown under irrigation. This does not 
apply to the early varieties, as many of these may be 
ready quite as soon from non-irrigated as from irrigated 
land. It is in varieties that come on later that the gar- 



210 DRY LAND FARMING 

dener with irrigating waters has a tremendous advantage, 
as he has also in the succession of garden crops which 
he may grow on the same land. Under specially favor- 
able situations, the truck gardener in dry areas may make 
a success in his work, but, ordinarily, the dry farmer 
should be content with a supply of vegetables grown for 
home use. Some fruits may be yet introduced which in 
other countries have shown ability to grow under ex- 
tremely dry conditions. The olive industry, which has 
been tried tentatively gives much promise of success. 
This fruit has been grown successfully in some of the 
countries of the old world where the annual average 
rainfall does not exceed 10 inches. It is also possible 
that the sycamore fig, the Chinese date, some nut-bear- 
ing trees and also some other fruits, may be grown 
successfully under equally trying conditions. It would 
not be possible to forecast at the present time the extent 
to which such fruits may be grown. 

Trees and windbreaks in dry areas. — The discussion 
will dwell: (1) on trees for shelter; (2) on trees for for- 
est growth, and (3) on trees for fence posts. There are 
areas in the arid country so completely arid as to pre- 
clude the hope of growing on them trees or shrubs of 
any kind. But the hope of succeeding with some varie- 
ties may certainly be cherished where the rainfall is 
not less than 10 inches annually. Where it is 15 inches, 
success is assured where proper methods are followed. 
As a rule the growing of windbreaks should precede the 
growing of trees, or at least it should precede the planting 
of the same. This at least is true of the Great Plains 
country, which to so great an extent is exposed to the 
action of strong winds. Trees planted to form wind- 
breaks of the pliant order, as willows for instance, take 
much less harm from the rocking of the winds when they 
are young, hence the aim should be to have the wind- 
break well started before planting forests on its lee- 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 211 

ward side, which is the proper place for planting them. 
It is doubtful if any tree will render greater service in 
furnishing a windbreak than the white or gray willow, 
but doubtless various other sorts may be used. The 
need for such windbreaks is very great, hence the farmer 
should try and make ready to plant a windbreak as 
soon as he begins work on his farm. 

The extent to which forest trees will be, or should 
be, grown in the semi-arid country will depend much on 
the precipitation. That some of these may be grown suc- 
cessfully under very dry conditions is evidenced in the 
fact that nature has grown them unaided, as evidenced 
in the growth of such species as the yellow pine and the 
red cedar where the rainfall is very light. The same is 
true of the juniper. It would not seem probable, judg- 
ing by the indications at the present time, that forest 
trees would be grown for lumber to any considerable ex- 
tent on the benches of the semi-arid country, but of 
course what the future may bring forth cannot now be 
safely forecasted. Should groves be planted, however, 
the aim should be to start them inside of a windbreak. 

As time goes on, the need for posts to aid in fenc- 
ing the land will be felt. The wise farmer will set 
about providing for it at an early date. Where the 
mountains are not distant, a source of supply will be 
always accessible. Under other conditions, fence posts 
may be grown. Among the trees that are found suitable 
are the willow, the catalpa and the locust. The willow 
has highest adaptation for the Great Plains country, the 
catalpa for the middle regions of the semi-arid belt, and 
the locust for those central and south. All these will 
grow more slowly than in humid climates. 

Cultivated crops that may be grown. — The discus- 
sion will include the following classes of crops that may 
be cultivated with more or less profit in dry areas: (1) 
cereals; (2) fodder crops; (3) legumes, and (4) various 



212 DRY LAND FARMING 

other crops. These may be cultivated with more Or less 
profit. Such cultivation will prove relatively more profit- 
able under dry than under humid conditions, and chiefly 
because of the influence which it exercises on moisture 
conservation. The cultivation has reference to stirring 
the soil above and around the plants as shown in chapter 
XII, the implements used being the harrow and some 
form of cultivator. 

There is no kind of cereal grown in the semi-arid 
country that will not be profited by some form of cul- 
tivation given to it during the period of growth. As 
a rule such cultivation will be given to cereals included 
under the head of small grains, by the aid of the harrow. 
More commonly these are sown by the grain drill in 
the ordinary way and the harrowing is done chiefly after 
the crops have reached the surface of the ground. Plant- 
ing cereals in spaced rows has been tried, that is in rows 
wide enough to admit of cultivating between them, but 
the results obtained do not seem to justify the expense 
of such cultivation. This at least is true of the increase 
that such cultivation brings to the crop. It is doubtful, 
however, in such instances, if a suflicient allowance has 
been made for the influence which the cultivation given 
may exert on the next crop. Peas, probably more than 
any other cereal, have been thus grown in spaced rows, 
but the benefit from growing them thus has not been 
determined as yet. The degree of the harrowing that may 
be given to cereals is discussed elsewhere (see p. 156). 
For the place for these crops, see pp. o90-399. 

With fodder crops the case is absolutely clear. Fod- 
der crops as used here means the coarse fodders, as corn 
and the sorghums. Cultivation for these is absolutely in- 
dispensable. It is given while the crop has not yet ap- 
peared, and subsequently. It is given with both the 
harrow and the ordinary corn cultivator of various 
makes, and it is continued usually, or at least it ought 



CROPS THAT MAY BE GROWN IN DRY AREAS 213 

to be, until the crop gets too far advanced to admit of 
cultivating it longer. The place for these crops has al- 
ready been referred to (see p. 199). 

The legumes that may be grown are included in 
some instances in the crops previously discussed. Al- 
falfa, for instance, is included in the list of the hay 
plants and peas in that of the small grains. To these 
may be added field beans. It is at least questionable if 
alfalfa will be grown to any great extent in spaced rows 
and cultivated while growing in order to furnish hay, 
and for the reason that it can be grown fairly well with- 
out such cultivation. But it is more than probable that 
it will be grown thus for seed. The extent to which the 
seed industry may yet develop from seed grown on these 
lines cannot safely be forecasted at the present time. 
That the crop when grown for hay will be disced more or 
less severely every year when sown on the bench lands, 
is a foregone conclusion. The bean crop, which may be 
safely grown in much of the dry area, must be given care- 
ful cultivation wliile it is being grown. 

Other crops that call for cultivation during the 
growth period include roots and tubers, fruits and vege- 
tables, windbreaks and trees. All the field roots grown 
must be grown by the aid of cultivation, save in such 
instances as when the seed may be scattered broadcast 
on breaking. The same is true of potatoes and artichokes, 
save when potatoes are grown on breaking, the tubers 
being dropped beneath the proper sod furrow while the 
land is being plowed. The aim should be, however, to 
avoid growing them thus. The cultivation of fruit will 
be necessary from year to year under dry land conditions. 
Such cultivation will probably ha.ve to be kept up as long 
as the shrubs and trees are to be kept in bearing. Of 
course all vegetables will call for cultivation. The same 
is true also of windbreaks and forest trees. The culti- 
vation of these must be kept up until the leaves will 
form a sufficient mulch to adequately protect them. 



CHAPTER XI 

GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 

The chief of the small grains grown in Montana, and 
in fact in all the states north of Salt Lake City, include 
the following: Winter and spring wheat, winter and 
spring rye, flax, barley, oats, peas and speltz. The aim 
has been to name these in the order of relative importance 
viewed from the standpoint of possible profitable pro- 
duction based on the climate and soil conditions. But 
it does not follow that the relative importance thus as- 
signed to them will correspond with the extent to which 
they will be grown by the farmer, at least for many years 
to come. There can be no question, however, about the 
place that shall be assigned to wheat in the semi-arid 
region. It will probably continue to hold the premier 
place among the revenue producing crops on the unirri- 
gated land during the centuries that are yet to be. 

GROWING WHEAT, WINTER AND SPRING 

While both winter and spring wheat may and will be 
grown on the lands of much of the semi-arid country, win- 
ter wheat will, in nearly all instances, be the more im- 
portant crop. This will follow, first, from the fact that it 
will produce much larger yields than spring wheat ; such 
at least has been the case in all areas practically that have 
been found favorable to the growth of winter wheat. The 
difference will probably be not less than 50 per cent, in 
favor of winter wheat on the average. It will follow, 
second, from the fact that winter wheat will mature ear- 
lier than spring wheat and will, therefore, be much less 
injured by the drought and heat that characterize the 
summer months. It will follow, third, from the fact that 
it so changes the time of the sowing and the reaping, 
that the farmer can grow this crop without adding to the 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 215 

expense for hired labor. The adaptations of the condi- 
tions for growing winter wheat successfully in the 
semi-arid country are indeed remarkable, whether the 
bulk of the precipitation comes in the autumn and winter 
months or during the period of greatest growth. The 
winter wheat crop, because of the very large yields that 
are frequently obtained, will, in many instances, pay for 
the land that grew it in a single crop. This does not 
mean that spring wheat may not be grown with much 



DRY LAND DURUM WHEAT GROWN NEAR GREAT FALLS, MONT 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 

success in many areas, but that the attention should 
rather be centered on the growing of winter wheat where 
it may be grown with remarkable success. 

Soils. — The soils of the larger portions of the arable 
farms of the western states have high adaptation for the 
growth of winter wheat. They are exceedingly rich in 
the mineral constituents that favor grain production, 
they may, as a rule, be easily penetrated by the roots of 
the wheat plants and they very readily retain moisture 



216 DRY LAND FARMING 

that falls when properly managed. The clay loam soils 
and the sandy loam soils underlaid with clay, and the 
volcanic ash soils of the farther west, have very high 
adaptation for growing wheat with reference, first, to the 
food constituents wdiich they contain ; second, with refer- 
ence to the easy penetration by the roots of plants ; and, 
third, with reference to their ability to hold moisture. 
The proportion of the arable land that is well adapted 
to the growth of wheat in the semi-arid west is unusually 
large. 

Soils that are unsuitable for wheat include alkali 
land, light coarse sands and soils that lie quite near the 
underlying rock. Alkali lands are unsuitable in propor- 
tion to the alkali and the degree of the same. Lands 
strongly impregnated with black alkali are wholly un- 
suited to the growth of wheat, and in fact all other crops, 
and the same is true of those strongly impregnated with 
white alkali. But small amounts of the latter are not 
seriously prejudicial if indeed prejudicial at all. Light 
and especially coarse sands will not sufficiently supply 
the plants with food and moisture, hence the yields on 
these will be small, and lands underlaid with rock near 
the surface will not sustain good growth under dry con- 
ditions. 

Place in the rotation. — In dry areas, the place that 
wheat will occupy in the rotation will depend upon many 
conditions, such as the amount of the precipitation, the 
degree of the plant food in the soil and the mechanical 
condition of the same. Where the precipitation is about 
20 inches, wheat crops may be grown from year to year 
with reasonable success on many western soils for a more 
or less limited number of years. The duration of these 
is proportional to the amount of fertility in the land. 
But the wisdom of such a rotation after two or three or 
even a larger number of crops are taken in succession 
after breaking the land, is to be questioned, because of the 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 217 

drain on the fertility, and also on the humus, without 
any replenishing of either because of the increase in weed 
life which is sure to follow, and because of the increase 
of insect life and of fungous diseases that invariably 
results. When the precipitation is about 15 inches, one 
crop of w^inter wheat may be grown in alternation with 
summer-fallow for a number of successive years — how 
many, will depend on the store of plant food in the soil. 
The increase of weed and insect life should not obtain in 
this case, as in the former, but it depletes fertility and 
humus very materially, and because of this it is not to be 
commended, notwithstanding the fact that for several 
years there may be no diminution in the yields. 

The aim should be therefore, in dry areas, to make 
winter w^heat follow the bare-fallow or a cultivated crop, 
as corn, the wheat being drilled in between the corn rows 
in order to get it sown in season. In areas where the win- 
ters are cold, the winter wheat must have protection, as 
in the Dakotas. In such areas it may follow^: (1) on the 
summer-fallow on which a small amount of corn has been 
drilled very late and left uncut to furnish protection ; (2) 
between standing corn which is cut later, a few rows of 
bare stalks being left standing every few rods to furnish 
protection; (3) amid the stalks of some dwarfish kind 
of corn from which the ears have been removed in some 
way, and (4) when drilled in amid the stubbles, prefer- 
ably of a barley crop because of the early harvesting of 
the same. Winter wheat is sometimes grown after a 
crop of winter wheat or other small grain, the land being 
plowed or disced. The practise is not a good one. . If 
the autumn is dry, the crop will fail for lack of proper 
germination. Spring wheat should as a rule be grown on 
fallow land or on land that has produced a cultivated 
crop. It will follow a cultivated crop more frequently 
than winter wheat, as the cultivated crop is not har- 



218 DRY LAND FARMING 

vested sufficiently early to admit of following with winter 
wheat. . 3, A'^lfl 

The wheat crop should be followed by summer-fal- 
low or by a cultivated crop where the rainfall is not more 
than 15 inches. Where the rainfall is less than 15 inches, 
a grain crop may succeed but it may also fail, dependent 
on the character of the season. The cultivated crop 
that follows will more probably be corn because of the 
extent to which that crop will be grown, but any annual 
crop that is cultivated will suffice. Where the rainfall 
is more than 15 inches it may be in order to grow two 
crops of grain in succession, especially after land that 
has been fallowed, but it is better to make the second 
some crop other than wheat. 

The aim should be to avoid growing wheat after 
wheat in immediate succession, but it may be allowable 
under the following conditions: (1) Where the rainfall is 
between 15 and 20 inches per year while the land is yet 
new; (2) where the land is summer-fallowed every other 
year while the soil is yet new, and well stocked with 
plant food and humus; (3) where wheat and corn are 
grown in alternation for a number of years ; (4) when a 
second crop is taken from land that has been summer- 
fallowed without re-plowing for the same. But in all 
instances it will be found necessary to modify these ro- 
tations after the land has been cropped for a number of 
years. In dry areas wheat should not be made to follow 
other grain crops. 

Preparing the soil. — In dry areas the land is more 
frequently prepared for growing wheat by what is known 
as the summer-fallowing plan. It will also be much 
grown in the near future after a cultivated crop, espe- 
cially after corn. But it will also be grown more or 
less by methods that are hazardous. These will be 
considered. 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 219 

Land that is summer-fallowed will consist of break- 
ing or of land that has been previously cropped. The 
method of handling is practically the same, and it is 
in outline as follows : It should be plowed when it 
has the largest amount of moisture in it. This, in the 
Plains country and in the prairies northward, will occur 
between the opening of spring, and, say, the first of 
July. June is the favorite month in which to do the 
plowing, as then the soil will probably have the largest 
amount of moisture in it, and in that month the farmers 
have time for such work. Where the precipitation falls 
in the late autumn and winter, the plowing should be 
done as soon as the moistened soil conditions will admit 
of doing the work. 

The plowing should be deep on nearly all kinds of 
soil. The exceptions are light, sandy soils, a'nd shallow 
soils underlaid with unresponsive subsoil. Such plow- 
ing may be costly at the first, but in the lapse of years 
the extra cost will be more than repaid. 

When the land is thus plowed in the Plains region, 
it should at once be compressed, preferably the day that 
it is plowed. The objects sought in thus compressing 
it are, first, to so smooth and firm the surface that the 
implements of tillage that are to follow, especially the 
harrow, w^ill do more effective work, and, second, to press 
the loosened soil so that the air and sun will not draw 
moisture so readily from the soil. But in areas where 
the precipitation comes mainly in the winter, such com- 
pression may under some conditions prove detrimental 
on certain soils. The aim in plowing these thus early is 
to allow moisture to penetrate them easily at a season 
of the year when the moisture is but little drawn from 
the soil. 

The implements that will best serve these ends will 
depend, to a very considerable degree, -on the character 
and condition of the soil. In some instances the smooth 



220 DRY LAND FARMING 

roller will do effective work, especially in compressing 
newly broken sod. One objection to the smooth roller 
is that, while it firms the 'soil above, it leaves it uncom- 
pressed below. The corrugated roller will aid more in 
crushing lumps than the smooth roller where these oc- 
cur. The planker will aid in levelling up the soil where 
this may be necessary, in powdering lumps, and in 
compressing the soil, but the compression is on and near 
the surface as in the case of the roller. On stubble land 
the subsurface packer should do good work, as it firms 
the soil below. On breaking and sod land generally, the 
disc does very good work when rightly used, and in the 
absence of a better implement it may also be used to 
compress stubble land. 

The next operation is harrowing with the straight 
tooth harrow, the object being to form a dust mulch 
on the surface of the soil to prevent the escape of 
moisture that is continually moving toward the sur- 
face, save when it has enough water in it to result in a 
downward movement of the same. This dust mulch must 
be maintained through the season, chiefly, if not en- 
tirely, through the use of the ordinary harrow. The 
necessity for renewing the mulch will depend to a con- 
siderable degree on the frequency with which the summer 
rain falls, and also on the nature of the soil. The more 
frequently that rain falls on fallow land, and the greater 
the tendency to encrustation, the greater is the necessity 
for frequently renewing the dust mulch. When encrusta- 
tion follows, as it does usually after every considerable 
rain, the crust forms cracks in drying, and through the 
openings thus made the moisture will rapidly escape. 
The remedy consists in running the harrow over the 
ground promptly, as soon as it has become dry enough 
to admit of doing the work effectively and without any 
injury to the land. It is not necessary to use the har- 
row thus after every little shower that falls. Should 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 321 

light showers fall frequently and at short intervals, the 
land will not form cracks or openings so numerously as 
after a heavy rain. 

The fallow land must also be kept clean. This is 
imperative, as in proportion to the extent to which 
weeds grow on the land, just in that proportion will 
moisture be taken from the soil. Weeds will draw on 
moisture more heavily than grain plants because of their 
stronger inherent powers of growth. Should moisture 
be conserved during the early part of the fallowing proc- 
ess, and weeds are then allowed later to grow on the 
same, the weeds will remove the moisture thus conserved, 
and will thus so far undo what has been done. To pre- 
vent such a result, it may be necessary to use the har- 
row more frequently than would be necessary for renew- 
ing the dust mulch to prevent the escape of moisture. 
xAnnual and biennial weeds may be most easily destroyed 
when they are just beginning to grow. But the use of 
other implements may be necessary in order to destroy 
perennial weeds and volunteer grains that have become 
deeply rooted (see p. 120). 

When the bare-fallow has been managed thus, in 
nearly all instances, there will be moisture enough in the 
same to germinate winter wheat when sown on fallow 
land, even in very dry seasons. But to this there may be 
some exceptions, as when the ground is lacking in mois- 
ture in the spring when it is plowed, and when no mois- 
ture virtually falls on it subsequently. Such was the 
condition of fallow land in the spring and autumn of 
1910. In numerous instances, when the winter wheat 
was planted it did not germinate. But this will seldom 
occur. 

When wheat follows a cultivated crop, the treatment 
of the land that is best suited to the needs of the culti- 
vated crop will also be best suited to the needs of the 
wheat crop that follows. The cultivated crop that may be 



222 DRY LAND FARMING 

thus grown will include corn,' potatoes, field roots and 
beans, and in some instances peas, more especially of the 
dwarfish varieties. When a cultivated crop is grown on 
land, and when the work is rightly done, the land has been 
virtually summer-fallowed. The objects sought in the 
cultivation are virtually the same, viz., to prevent the es- 
cape of moisture, and also the growth of weeds. The crop 




DRY LAND KUBANKA WHEAT, Fl.K(JU.s UuUlNll, MONTANA. 
Cpurtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 

thus cultivated during the process of growth draws on the 
soil moisture in proportion to its needs. This drain may 
be considerable, especially when the growth is strong. 
The soil moisture will, therefore, be reduced by the amount 
thus used, hence it is reasonable to conclude that the soil 
which has produced a cultivated crop will contain a 
less amount of moisture than summer-fallowed land 
alongside of it. But experience has shown that where 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 223 

the rainfall averages 15 inches per annum the soil will 
contain enough moisture after a cultivated crop to pro- 
duce a reasonable crop of wheat or other small grain, 
even in a very dry season. The average annual precipi- 
tation that is necessary to insure a profitable return in 
wheat or other small grain after a cultivated crop has 
not yet been determined. Of course it can only be de- 
termined approximately, but on many soils it would seem 
safe to say that such a result may be looked for where the 
annual precipitation is even less than 15 inches, as low 
probably as 12 to 13 inches. 

Sowing. — The following methods of sowing winter 
wheat are somewhat hazardous, notwithstanding that 
they are frequently tried in the semi-arid belt: (1) Sow- 
ing on plowed or disced land after a crop of small grain ; 
(2) sowing amid the stubbles without plowing; (3) 
sowing very late in seasons when moisture is much 
deficient in the land. 

In the coldest portions of the dry belt, as the Dakotas 
and portions of Canada, wheat <:annot be depended on 
to pass the winter safely on stubble land, either disced or 
plowed. In areas less cold it may not germinate prop- 
erly, nor indeed at all, before the following spring. Of 
course, if the ground is moist when the seed is sown, it 
may produce a good crop, but this seldom happens. The 
practise is defended on the ground that though the 
seed should not germinate properly the only loss is the 
seed, which is usually not more than three pecks per 
acre, and the labor of sowing it. In this justification 
there is some force, and yet the practise is hazardous. 

When wheat is drilled in amid the stubbles after 
the grain has been cut, a reasonably good crop is some- 
times secured even in the colder portions of the semi- 
arid belt, but the hazard is present, first, that the seed 
may not germinate sufficiently early in the autumn be- 
cause of the lack of moisture, and, second, that the 



224 DRY LAND FARMING 

yield will be small should a dry season follow, because of 
lack of sufficiently vigorous growth. The object sought 
in planting wheat thus is to insure protection for the 
plants in winter through the holding of the snow, and 
by the breaking of the force of the cold winds because 
of the presence of the stubbles. When winter wheat is 
thus sown the ground should not be disced previously to 
the sowing, as this would to a considerable degree re- 
move the protection from the plants. The land should 
also be free from weed life, else the weeds will crowd 
the next season. Barley stubble is usually preferred for 
such sowing, as the crop may be removed early to admit 
of sowing the wheat early. 

Winter wheat may be sown so late in some localities 
that it will not germinate before the advent of winter. 
Reasonably good crops may be obtained in this way, 
but they seldom or never equal those crops that are sown 
in season. This method of sowing can only be made to 
succeed where the winters are not severe, and even in 
these it is not to be commended. There is the hazard that 
germination will be imperfect and the plants begin to 
grow so late that they have but little advantage over 
spring wheat plants as to the time of maturing. Should 
the seed not germinate until the arrival of warm weather 
in the spring it is not likely that it will reach the heading 
out stage. The time beyond which late germination will 
fail to produce heads has not as yet been well defined. 

Where the conditions are suitable winter wheat is 
to be preferred to spring wheat for reasons already given. 
The winter cold of the Dakotas, and of the portions of 
Manitoba and Saskatchewan included in the dry belt, 
makes the growing of winter wheat considerably more 
hazardous than that of spring wheat. In nearly all of 
the remaining portions of the semi-arid country, the con- 
ditions are more favorable to the growth of winter wheat, 
and more especially where the larger portion of the 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 225 

precipitation falls in the winter and early spring. Where 
the two crops grow about equally well, the greater haz- 
ard to spring wheat of injury' from drought is probably 
more than offset by the hazard to winter wheat which 
may result: (1) from germination started but not com- 
pleted ; (2) from alternate thawing and freezing which 
in some localities may do harm where the winter precipi- 
tation is considerable; (3) from drying winter winds 
accompanied by protracted periods of severe cold. 

In the semi-arid areas hard and semi-hard wheats of 
both winter and spring varieties are chiefly grown. The 
growth of the latter, all of which incline to softness and 
starchiness of varying degrees, is chiefly confined to 
Inter-mountain areas. They are being superseded with 
more or less quickness by the hard wheats, because of 
the superior milling qualities of the latter. 

The variety of hard winter wheat most in favor is 
the Turkey Red, south Russian in its origin, and the 
Kharkow or Kharkov, not greatly dissimilar. The 
Turkey Red is hardy, yields well, and is of high gluten 
content. It is now being grown in all the Great Plains 
country that is not too cold for the successful growth 
of winter wheat. It is probable that these varieties will 
yet displace to a very considerable extent the semi-hard 
wheats of the Inter-mountain states. The principal 
varieties of the latter are of the Defiance type, but va- 
rious other varieties are still much grown. In eastern 
Washington and Idaho the Palouse Blue Stem, the Forty 
Fold and Red Russian are popular. In eastern Oregon 
the Red Chaff and Foise are in favor. In California and 
other southwestern states the Little Club and Defiance 
are much grown. 

The spring wheats most in favor in the more humid 
portions of the dry areas are Red Fife and Blue Stem, 
which are in high favor in the Dakotas and in Manitoba 
and Saskatchewan. They are of excellent milling quali- 



226 DRY LAND FARMING 

ty, but they do not grow under very dry conditions as 
well as the Durum varieties. The latter are resistant 
to drought in a marked degree and they also yield 
relatively well, hence they will be much grown in the 
more dry portions of the semi-arid areas. They are 
less high in favor for milling than the Turkey Red, the 
Red Fife and the Blue Stem, and consequently do not 
bring so high a price. The Kubanka is the favorite Durum 



' 






*■ 












i 


• ^^^p 


k 


1 -iVf ' 




] 

i 



DRY LAND DURUM WHEAT, CASCADE COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 

wheat. In dry areas Durum wheats yield much better 
than other spring wheats as a rule. 

In Washington, Oregon, Idaho, Utah and states of 
the southwest, club or square headed wheats are much 
grown, and for the reason that they do not shatter readily 
when ripe. Because of this quality they are well suited to 
being harvested in a large way by headers and combined 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 227 

machines which head and thresh the grain in one oper- 
ation'. The Polish and Macaroni wheats, being drought- 
resistant and good yielders, are in some instances grown 
for feed. 

The time to sow winter wheat is influenced by lati- 
tude and altitude. The difiference between the best 
season for sowing the crop in the extreme northern area 
of the wheat belt and the extreme southern is more than 
a month. In the northern areas winter wheat must be 
sown earlier and spring wheat later by the difference 
mentioned. In these areas August is the favorite month 
for sowing winter wheat ; in central areas September and 
in southern areas October. Sowing thus early gives the 
plants stronger and deeper root growth, which enables 
them better to withstand winter weather, and it gives 
stronger top growth, which furnishes better winter pro- 
tection. In southern Alberta and in some parts of north- 
ern Alontana, wheat is sometimes sown in July, but sow- 
ing thus early may tend in some instances to incur the 
hazard, first, of infection by the Hessian fly, and, second, 
of drawing so much on the powers of the plant that 
growth the next year will not be sufficiently vigorous. 
This to some extent may be checked by grazing. Early 
planting is usually to be preferred, as it may prevent 
loss by drought in the later fall, heaving by frost, and 
drying out and perishing by cold. 

Generally speaking, spring wheat may be sown as 
soon as the ground is fit for cultivation in the spring. 
This may not always apply where the winters are char- 
acterized by warm spells, followed by severe freezing 
weather. About parallel 49 wheat sowing is usually done 
in the latter half of April, though in some instances it is 
sown earlier. Where the frost goes deeply into the soil, 
sowing on autumn-plowed land may frequently begin 
while the frost is not yet melted far down below the 
seed bed. 



228 DRY LAND FARMING 



Sowing wheat on the broadcast plan should never 
be attempted in dry areas where it can be avoided. 
It is impossible to bury the seed so that the germination 
will be even and complete. In humid areas such sowing 
is attended with much less hazard. Sowing with the drill 
has the following advantages: (1) The seed is distributed 
uniformly and is buried at an even depth. (2) It may 
usually be sown where the soil is sufficiently moist to 
insure germination. This may not be possible in many 
instances with much of the seed sown on the broadcast 
plan. (3) The pressing of the soil around the seed, which 
is favorable to quick germination. (4) A saving in the 
amount of seed called for. This saving is probably not 
less than one peck per acre. (5) Burying the plants so 
deeply that they may be harrowed at certain stages of 
growth without the hazard of taking many of them out. 

There may also be the advantage in some instances 
of protection in winter through the depression made by 
the drill marks. To some extent these tend to shield 
the plants from winds and to cover them with snow. 

In nearly all soils the press drill is a favorite in 
dry areas but there may be conditions when the shoe 
drill may answer better. . The size of the drill may be 
suited, of course, to the needs of the farm. When 
the wheat is sown amid standing corn of normal size, 
it is put in with a small seeder drawn by one horse 
which runs between the rows. The large drill is used for 
sowing the crop amid corn stalks of some low growing 
varieties which are not to be removed but from which 
the ears have been taken. 

The depth of planting depends on the kind of soil, 
its physical condition, and its moisture content. The 
more sandy the soil, the looser it is, and the farther from 
the surface that the moisture is the more deeply may 
the seed be planted. 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 229 

When the moisture is sufficient at the time of sowing 
the seed, there would seem to be no advantage from 
sowing it more deeply than 2 to 3 inches. But when mois- 
ture is lower down, winter wheat especially may be put 
down 3 to 4 inches in order to reach it. Fairly deep 
sowing tends to aid the plants in severe winter weather 
and also in time of drought. 

The quantity of seed to sow varies with the soil, the 
time of seeding, the variety and the climatic conditions. A 
good soil, under dry conditions, can take more seed than 
would be suitable for a poor soil. Late sowing calls 
for more seed than early sowing, as the plants stool less. 
The large wheats call for more than the small ones. The 
more moisture that the soil contains, the thicker may 
be the seeding. It would seem correct to say that about 
half the amounts of seed called for in humid areas will 
suffice for dry areas. When the plants are present in too 
large numbers, there is not enough moisture in the soil 
to meet their needs. They will be dwarfed in their 
growth. The heads will be unduly small, nor will the 
grains in them be of normal size. Early in the season 
the thicker stand will be the more promising, but this 
condition will probably be reversed at harvest time. 
The plants of a thin stand will stool more than those of 
a thick stand. Ordinarily with a rainfall averaging 15 
inches, 3 pecks of the small grained wheats will suffice 
per acre when sown on good land. Of the larger grained 
wheats, as the Macaroni, 4 pecks may be needed. Where 
the rainfall is much less than 15 inches, the seed may be 
reduced by, say, one-half peck. Where the rainfall is 
not more than 10 inches, one-half bushel may suffice. 
Some authorities recommend sowing very small quanti- 
ties of seed, as low as 20 to 30 pounds per acre. Such 
small amounts would seem to be too low for average 
conditions. It is safer to err in sowing too -much seed 
than in sowing too little, as when the plants are in ex- 



230 



DRY LAND FARMING 



cess their numbers may be reduced by the aid of the 
harrow to any thickness of stand that may be desired. 

Care during growth. — Under some conditions no 
further care of the crop may be necessary from the 
time that it is sowed until it is reaped. Under other 




DRY LAND WHEAT, 50 BUSHELS PER ACRE. 
Holter Ranch, Lewis and Clark County, Montana. 

Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 

conditions it may be more or less advantageous to har- 
row the crop after it has begun to grow. In other in- 
stances it may be advantageous to use the roller, and yet 
again it is considered helpful to the crop to graze it ofif 
in the autumn when the top growth is over-rank and 
strong. 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 231 

In the autumn when moisture is sufficiently present, 
and when the soil does not encrust, it may not be neces- 
sary to use the harrow or the roller on the crop at that 
season. Oftentimes either implement is so used, but in 
instances not a few it will be found advantageous to 
use the harrow when the grain plants begin to show. 
One objection to autumn harrowing is found in the oblit- 
eration of the depressions made by the grain drill, which 
to some extent may increase the hazard to the plants 
from winter exposure. In the spring there is a decided 
tendency to encrustation in much of the soil of the west 
that has been sewn to winter wheat. The crust formed 
must be broken to prevent the escape of moisture, to fur- 
nish the necessary aeration and to accelerate the forma- 
tion of nitrates. Usually the best implement to use in 
order lo accomplish these ends is the harrow. The time 
and manner of the first harrowing will depend somewhat 
on the strength of the grain, the character of the soil, and 
the degree of the encrustation. If the grain plants are 
small and delicate the harrow used must be light, so as 
not to bury or tear out the plants. If the soil is loose and 
not impacted, it may not be necessary to use the harrow. 
If the soil is very compact and much encrusted, it may be 
necessary to use a heavy harrow, the teeth being erect and 
the harrow weighted ; and there may be instances in 
which the disc rightly used or the alfalfa renovator will 
render better service. Instances are on record in which 
winter wheat has been severely disced with positive ad- 
vantage to the crop. The encrustation must be removed 
if the crop is to make a sufficient growth. This work 
should be done as early in the spring as it may be done 
without injury to the land. Proper stirring of the surface 
at the right time may prevent such encrustation. The 
subsequent harrowings called for will be largely depend- 
ent on weather conditions. Some seasons one harrow- 
ing may suffice. At other times the crop may profit from 



232 DRY LAND FARMING 

several harrowings. Wheat has been harrowed with 
profit when it has reached the height of one foot, but 
harrowing at a stage of growth thus advanced is seldom 
necessary. 

The number of the harrowings called for by spring 
wheat may run from none at all to fewer than four or 
five, but under what may be termed normal conditions, 
it will seldom be necessary to harrow more frequently 
than two or three times. In many soils the weeder may 



DRY LAND HEADED WHEAT. 
Culver-Opal City District, Oregon. 

Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 

do more effective work than the harrow, especially when 
these are very loose, but when on impacted soils the 
weeder will be found of but little use. 

Should the soil encrust in the autumn, it may be ad- 
vantageous to use on it a corrugated roller instead of 
a harrow, more especially when the soil calls for firming 
below. But it will seldom be advantageous to use this 
implement in preference to the harrow on spring wheat 
or other grain sown on autumn-plowed land. 

The extent to which winter wheat may be pastured 
in dry areas will depend: (1) on the severity or lack of 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 233 

seventy in the winter weather: (2) on the advance- 
ment of the grain as the result of early sowing, and (3) 
on the amount of the rain that falls' in the autumn months 
and the period covered by such rainfall. Where the 
autumns are short and dry and the winters are long 
and severe, winter wheat should seldom or never be pas- 
tured, as pasturing will remove the covering which the 
top growth would otherwise furnish. In other words, 
the aim should be to avoid the necessity for pasturing 
winter wheat in areas where protection for the crop is in 
a sense a necessity. When the crop is sown quite early, 
as early as July or early August, in seasons of more than 
the usual amount of precipitation, the growth may be- 
come so advanced that grazing will be advantageous to 
the crop. In some areas, as, for instance, the Flathead 
valley in Montana, where the autumns are long and moist, 
the preceding summer weather being usually dry, the 
grazing of winter wheat is regularly practised. It is fol- 
lowed, in part at least, to obtain a source of autumn pas- 
ture, which from other sources is usually, in short supply. 
The profit from such grazing, though apparently seldom 
challenged, is more or less problematical as far as the 
author has been able to ascertain. No experiments have 
been conducted to test the influence of such depasturing 
on the yields of the crop, nor have any been conducted 
to throw light on the question as to the best season for 
grazing the same. When the winters are mild and the 
precipitation is considerable at that season, care must 
be taken to avoid grazing should the soil be unduly wet. 
Harvesting. — As far as practicable, the crop should 
be harvested at an early rather than a late stage of 
ripening in order to prevent shelling in the grain. This 
does not apply equally to the club varieties of wheat, as 
these do not shell readily. But it does apply to such 
varieties as the Turkey Red, and wheat of the Durum 
types. The loss from these through shelling as a result 



234 DRY LAND FARMING 

of being whipped about by the winds after reaching ma- 
turity may be material. Such loss is increased by the 
plumpness of the grain, which favors loss from the source 
named. The more plump the grain, the more readily does 
it shell. Wheat is ready for being harvested when the 
stem has turned yellow for a few inches below the head. 
The culms will at the same time have assumed a yellow 
tint for several inches from the ground upward, not- 
withstanding that the other portion of the stem may be 
still green. A few days delay in cutting may result in 
very serious loss through shelling, but this does not 
apply to the club or square-head varieties. 

Except when grown in very large areas, wheat is 
harvested with the grain binder, stood up more com- 
monly in round rather than in oblong shocks, and 
threshed from the shock. In dry areas wheat is not com- 
monly stacked, as rains during the harvest season are 
almost unknown. Shocks well made will usually stand 
for several weeks without injury, save what may come 
through birds and rodents. 

When grown in a large way in the dry west, wheat 
is harvested, in many instances, by the aid of the header. 
This machine cuts ofif and gathers the heads without re- 
moving the straw. The heads are thrown into heaps 
until they can be threshed. Should rain fall before the 
time of threshing, the grain may be seriously damaged, 
but this very seldom happens. This method of harvest- 
ing, which is relatively cheap and very expeditious, is al- 
most universal where the club varieties of grain are 
grown in a large way. But when the grain is very short 
it may, leave many heads ungathered. 

Where very large areas are grown, the crop is some- 
times harvested by using the combined header and 
thresher. This machine, which is, in some instances, 
drawn by 25 to 30 head of horses or mules, or both, 
heads the grain and threshes it in the one operation. It 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 235 

is left in sacks, which are dumped on the ground from 
the platform of the machine as threshed. The sacks are 
then gathered and drawn to the railroad station to be 
carried by rail to the place of shipment or of final use. 
The dry harvest conditions make this method of han- 
dling grain entirely practicable. 




HARVESTING 600 ACRES TURKEY RED WHEAT WITH A COM- 
BINED HARVESTER IN ROSEBUD COUNTY, MONTANA. 

Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 

Where the crop is threshed from the shock, the work 
is usually done by machines which go from place to 
place. Some of these take their own crews along with 
them with board and lodging. This method of thresh- 
ing is very convenient for the farmer, but it is usually 
costly because of the prices charged. It will doubtless 
be found economical for several farmers to combine and 
buy a small thresher and do their own threshing. 



236 DRY LAND FARMING 

The yields, of course, vary with the conditions. 
Crops of winter wheat have been grown giving yields 
of 60 to 70 bushels per acre. These are, of course, very 
exceptional and rare. On summer-fallow land and after 
a cultivated crop, the average should not be less than 25 
bushels. Drilled in amid the stubbles of a preceding 
crop of grain, it will usually be much less. Maximum 
crops of spring wheat may be placed at about 40 bushels, 
with an average of, say, 15 to 20 bushels in well prepared 
soils. 

GROWING RYE, WINTER AND SPRING 

The place assigned to rye in the past in semi-arid 
areas has been of but little significance. ThQ great 
use that may be made of it in such areas is not, apparent- 
ly, well understood by many of those who till the soil. 
In wide areas its growth has not been attempted, not- 
withstanding that it may be grown with adv<antage 
for more uses on the farm than any other cereal. 
These include growing it: (1) for the grain; (2) 
for hay; (3) for pasture, and (4) for green manuring. 
The methods to be followed in growing it for these sev- 
eral uses are, fortunately, nearly the same. The chief 
difference lies in the amounts of seed to use, but there 
is some difference, also, in the time that is most oppor- 
tune for sowing the seed. 

Rye, especially of the winter varieties, may be grown 
under a greater variety of conditions than any other 
cereal adapted to semi-arid areas. It is the hardiest of 
all cereals viewed from the standpoint of climatic con- 
ditions. It would seem correct to say that it will stand 
more heat and drought than any of these. With refer- 
ence to cold, it is the hardiest of the cereals, by far. The 
variations in the time for sowing it are greater, and it will 
grow on a greater variety of soils. It may be grown 
successfully in the coldest portions of the semi-arid west 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 237 

and with almost unfailing certainty, when it is prop- 
erly grown. Compared with wheat, it will grow on 
a poorer soil, in colder latitudes and under drier con- 
ditions. It is also much more valuable as a pasture crop, 
owing in great measure to the long period through which 
it will grow when kept down by rather close grazing. 
In this way it has been kept in the soil and producing 
for two or three seasons under conditions peculiarly 
favorable to its growth. The straw has not as yet been 
used in certain industries in the west as it has been in 
the east, but there are no inherent reasons why it should 
not come to be so used. One of the chief objections to 
growing it in a country adapted to the growth of winter 
wheat is the extent to which it volunteers from shat- 
tered grain. 

Soils. — Other things being equal, the' returns from 
r3^e will be liberal in proportion as the soils on which 
it is grown are rich in the elements of plant food. But 
it is usually sown on land relatively low in fertility and 
under conditions of preparation that are inferior, the 
better soil, and that also with the better preparation, be- 
ing reserved for crops that are less able to grow under 
hard conditions. Rye can gather food more readily from 
the soil than other small grains, hence the power which 
it has to grow on poor soils. 

The best soils for rye are those that are deep, rich 
and friable, and in which the subsoil is reasonably open 
rather than dense. A sandy loam is more suited to the 
needs of the crop than a dense clay loam. Under some 
conditions it may be grown with considerable success 
on light sands, even light enough to lift more or less 
with the wind. The largest yields, however, will be ob-/ 
tained from soils in which the clay element is quite pro- 
nounced. It would be correct to say that rye may be 
successfully grown on the major portion of the tillable 
soils of the semi-arid west. 



238 DRY LAND FARMING. 

Soils that are illy adapted to the growth of rye are 
those that are over-impregnated with alkali, those that 
are known as pronounced gumbo, those that consist 
largely of coarse gravel, and those that are quite shallow 
and underlaid with hard-pan or rock. Reasonably good 
crops may be grown where the alkali is not too pro- 
nounced and also on gumbo soils under some conditions. 
The chief difficulty with the latter is mechanical. They 
are not easily tilled. 

Place in the rotation.— No cereal grown in dry areas 
can so readily accommodate itself to a rotation as rye. 
It would seem correct to say that it may be assigned 
any place in the rotation, but not, of course, with equal 
adaptation. 

It will grow excellently well on summer-fallow land 
or on land that has produced a cultivated crop, but land 
thus prepared can seldom be spared for rye. It will grow- 
well on sod land that has been properly prepared. The 
winter variety may follow a crop, as described below (see 
p. 239), when it is to be used first as pasture and later 
for the purpose of providing grain. It may also be 
drilled in between the rows of standing corn late in the 
season or sown later if the land can be spared for such 
a use. Spring rye will follow a grain crop with more 
of certainty in its growth than almost any other cereal, 
providing the land has been properly prepared. 

As rye is more commonly sown on land out of con- 
dition than other crops, the aim should be to follow it 
with the bare-fallow or with a crop that calls for culti- 
vation during the period of its growth. 

More commonly rye will follow grain than any of 
the other cereals for the reason that under such con- 
ditions it may succeed where other grains will fail. 
Where the precipitation is considerable in the autumn 
months, rye may be sown on newly plowed stubble and 
and yet succeed. Where the rainfall is short, it sue- 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 239 

ceeds better when simply drilled in amid the stubbles. 
But the best crops of rye are grown on land that has 
been cultivated or that has been summer-fallowed. 

Preparing the land. — The preparation given to the 
land when preparing it for rye is usually less perfect 
than that given to it when preparing it for wheat. This 
does not mean, however, that careful preparation of the 
soil for rye will not be as abundantly repaid as it would 
be in the case of wheat, but it does mean that rye will 
grow better relatively than wheat under imperfect prepa- 
ration of the soil. 

When rye is grown on summer-fallow land, the con- 
ditions of preparation are virtually the same as for wheat 
(see p. 218). The same may be said of it when it fol- 
lows a cultivated crop, with the difference, however, that 
after such a crop rye may be sown later than wheat. It 
may usually be sown with safety after such cultivated 
crops as corn and potatoes have been removed from the 
land. 

When rye is sown early in the season, as early as, 
say, June or July, in order to provide pasture for live 
stock, the land is best prepared by plowing it the pre- 
vious autumn. Before it is so plowed it may be a wise 
plan to disc it. But when not so prepared it may be 
plowed in the spring, especially in areas where the pre- 
cipitation comes mainly during the period of growth in 
the crops. 

Notwithstanding the hardiness of winter rye, it is 
easily possible to sow it under conditions that invite 
failure. These include: (1) sowing so late in the season 
that the plants do not germinate at all, or if they do ger- 
minate they are so delicate that stern winter weather 
will destroy them ; (2) sowing winter rye on land in the 
dry autumn that has not in it enough moisture to pro- 
duce healthy germination or, indeed, any form of ger- 
mination ; (3) sowing winter rye in the early spring. It 



240 



DRY LAND FARMING 



will grow vigorously for a time, and may thus be made 
to provide considerable pasture, but it will not reach the 
earing stage, at least under many conditions. 

Sowing. — With reference to varieties, but little can 
be said. Rye is simply rye in the mind of the western 
farmer, but in time there will be distinct varieties of 




DRY LAND RYE. 

Holter Ranch, Lewis and Clark County, Montana. 

Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 

rye, some of which will no doubt be possessed of superior 
merit. Some foreign varieties have already been intro- 
duced which promise considerable in the line of increased 
production. 

Rye of the winter varieties may be sown at any time 
from, say, early June until late September or even Octo- 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 341 

ber, according to the object for which it is grown. When 
sown to provide grazing, it may be sown as early as, say, 
June or July. When thus sown, it will furnish grazing 
during the summer and also the following spring. But 
the amount of the grazing the following spring may 
not equal that of rye that has been sown later, and 
that has not been so grazed the preceding autumn. 
When rye is sown to produce some grazing autumn and 
spring, followed by a crop of grain, it is more commonly 
sown in August or September. When it is sown late 
to provide grain, as in October, it will usually be wise 
not to graze at all, either spring or fall, because of the 
somewhat delicate character of the growth. 

The method of sowing is much the same as for 
wheat. The aim should be, in all instances, to sow rye 
with the drill rather than broadcast, for reasons that 
will be apparent. Especially is this true of rye that is 
sown amid stubbles. When thus sown the drill buries 
the seed to a depth that will enable the plants the better 
to resist the influences of adverse winter weather. W^hen 
sown amid standing corn, the small one-horse drill must 
needs be used. When sown after the corn has been 
harvested, the ordinary seed drill will do the work suf- 
ficiently well, but there may be instances in which the 
disc or the disc and harrow may profitably precede the 
drill. 

Rye should be buried to the depth of 3 to 3 inches 
in the soil under average conditions, but there may be 
instances in which the seed should be buried more deeply 
in order to reach soil moisture; especially is this true in 
the dry autumn. The more deeply that the seed is sown 
up to a certain limit, the better will it withstand drought, 
and the less easily will it be injured by the harrowing 
process. 

Rye does not stool as much as wheat and oats, and 
therefore should be sown somewhat more thickly, espe- 



342 



DRY LAND FARMING 



cially when compared with wheat. When sown for 
the grain, not fewer than, say, 5 pecks of winter or 
spring rye should be sown where the rainfall is about 
15 inches for the year. When sown for pasture mainly, 
or for hay, as much as 2 bushels of seed may sown. 
The grazing of the plants reduces the drain on soil mois- 
ture that would otherwise follow. When sown for burial, 
reasonably thick seeding, as in the case of sowing for 
pasture, will best serve the purpose. 




DRY LAND RYE, ROSEBUD COUNTY. MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 

The care of rye. — The care of winter rye involves, 
chiefly, the harrowing of the crop and the pasturing of the 
same. Much that has been said with reference to the 
harrowing of winter wheat will also apply to winter 
rye. But when winter rye is sown as early as, say, June 
or July, to provide autumn pasture, it" should be har- 
rowed more times than winter wheat and usually in pro- 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 243 

portion as the season for growth is longer in the former 
than in the latter. The rye crop, like the wheat crop, may 
also call for discing rather than harrowing in the spring- 
time, because of the impaction of the land. The same 
may be true of the crop while it is being grazed. 

When sown early for grazing, the grazing should 
be close, or the rye may tend to exhaust itself and also 
to draw too heavily on the moisture in the soil. When 
sown in the fall season at the usual time for furnishing 
grain, there are instances in which the crop may be hurt 
by leaf rust if left ungrazed. But when sown late the 
crop will produce more grain, as a rule, when not grazed 
either autumn or spring. In the semi-arid country, rye 
should not be grazed with undue severity when a grain 
crop is to be obtained from it, nor should spring-sown rye, 
as a rule, be grazed when it is to produce a crop of grain. 
Close grazing in the spring will materially prolong the 
season of pasturing, as it tends to prevent the formation 
of heads. 

Harvesting. — Rye is ready for harvesting when the 
stems turn yellow for, say, 9 to 12 inches below the 
head. W^hile it is greatly important that it shall be 
promptly harvested to prevent scattering seed that may 
volunteer later, it will not take injury so readily as wheat 
from deferred harvesting, as it does not shell so readily 
as some kinds of wheat, nor does the straw break down 
so readily. 

On small areas it is usually cut with the grain har- 
vester and cured in round shocks in the field. In large 
areas it may be headed like wheat. In sufficiently large 
areas the combined header and thresher would be the 
proper implement to use, but it is seldom grown on a 
scale so extensive as to justify this method of harvesting. 

It may be threshed as wheat (see p. 233). It is sel- 
dom or never fed in the sheaf when grown alone. The 
grain, judiciously fed, makes excellent food for all classes 



244 DRY LAND FARMING 

of live stock, and in some countries it is extensively used 

in making bread. The yields vary greatly. The yield 
will be about 15 to 18 bushels per acre. Maximum yields 
run as high as 40 bushels. 

When harvested for hay it should be cut from the 
time of early bloom until the grain has neared the dough 
stage. At the latter stage the hay will probably contain 
more nutriment, but it will be less palatable because of 
increase in woodiness. It does not make first-class hay. 
It may be cut for hay with the mower, but preferably 
with the binder and cured in long rather than in round 
shocks. 

For green manure. — In the semi-arid country, rye 
may be buried for green manure with greatest advantage 
when the land is to be summer-fallowed. When buried 
so that a spring crop may follow it the same season, the 
burial will take place too late to meet the needs of the 
crop if the rye is to be buried at that stage which will 
be most helpful to the land. The crop should usually 
be buried when it is nearing the earing stage, but before 
the ears appear, as, if the rye is allowed to reach a stage 
of growth too advanced, it will not decay quickly enough 
in a dry soil. Impaction should follow the burial of 
the crop to hasten its decay. 

GROWING FLAX 

Next to wheat, flax will be the most important cash 
crop grown on the bench lands of many parts of the 
semi-arid west, and more especially in the Great Plains 
region, where much of the rain falls during the period 
of growth. It will grow on a relatively small amount 
of rainfall, and it may be grown with more success than 
any other cereal on spring-plowed land in a season when 
the moisture supply is not plentiful. 

Soils. — Flax will grow well on any of the soils of 
the semi-arid west that will grow goods crops of wheat. 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 245 

This means that it will grow on the major portion of 
the tillable area in the same. The best soils for this 
crop are the clay loams of the benches that are sufficiently 
supplied with sand to make them readily friable. Flax, 
like other cereals, does not grow well on light sands or 
coarse gravels, on cloddy soils, on those that cement 
readily on the surface after rain or on alkali lands. 

Place in the rotation. — Flax may be given any place 
in the rotation where the conditions pertaining to growth 
are suitable, but the crops furnished will dififer greatly 
with the rotation. The best crops will probably be ob- 
tained from it when grown on land carefully summer- 
fallowed or after a cultivated crop, but land thus prepared 
is usually devoted to the growing of a plant less rugged 
than flax. Overturned sod, whether heretofore unbroken 
prairie or other sod, furnishes an excellent preparation 
for flax. Because of this, it is very frequently made the 
first crop on new breaking, and for the further reason 
that it is the safest grain crop that can be grown under 
such conditions, especially when the sowing is not too 
long deferred. Where the normal rainfall is more than 
15 inches, flax may frequently be made to follow a grain 
crop, but where it is less, such sowing should be avoided. 
On new land it is quite feasible to grow two crops in 
succession with good, healthy seed, but such a rotation 
is not to be commended. Under some conditions it may 
be in order to follow flax with grain. The plan, how- 
ever, is safer which follows flax with summer-fallow or 
with a cultivated crop, as corn. The flax crop dries out 
the soil and loosens it to such an extent that the hazard 
to the next crop from drought is increased. The preva- 
lent idea that flax should not be grown on land more 
frequently than every six or seven years is not well 
founded, providing the conditions for growing it are 
right and the seed is free from disease germs. 



246 DRY LAND FARMING 

Although flax is more frequently grown as the first 
crop on breaking than any other crop, unless it be wheat, 
the wisdom of making it the first crop in preference to 
wheat is to be questioned. Experience has shown that 
when wheat is the first crop and flax the second, the re- 
turns from the crops that follow, covering a period of, 
say, four to five years, will be greater. 

Preparing the land. — Flax calls for a seed bed fine 
on the top and firm below, though good crops have been 
grown on a seed bed rough and soddy. One that has a 
smooth as well as a fine surface is much to be preferred, 
as the crop grown on it may be harvested with' much 
less loss by waste. A properly prepared summer-fallow 
or a cultivated crop well cared for furnishes an ideal 
seed bed for flax. As the crop is not sown very early, 
careful attention should be given to the conservation of 
moisture, subsequent to the advent of spring, by the 
judicious use of the disc or harrow or both. 

When sod is broken for flax in the early summer, it 
is managed on the summer-fallow plan (see p. 170). When 
sown on spring breaking, the land should be plowed, if 
practicable, in the early spring and as deeply as 6 inches. 
It should then be pressed down at once with a roller 
and disced and harrowed until a fine seed bed is made, 
and as free as possible from sods. The seed should be 
sown, as a rule, not later than May 15th, to avoid undue 
hazard should the season turn dry. This does not con- 
tradict the fact that good crops of flax may be grown 
on sod land plowed quite shallow and in many instances 
left unsown as late as June 15th, in northern areas, but 
in all such sowing there is the hazard that failure may 
follow. 

When wheat or other grain is the first crop, and 
when the breaking has been done fairly deep and flax 
is sown as the second crop, it would seem to be the bet- 
ter plan to prepare the ground for flax by discing it 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 247 

rather than by plowing, that the sod buried may not 
again be brought to the surface until it is more decayed. 
The first discing should be given as soon as possible after 
the harvesting of the grain and the second the following 
spring, with such harrowing as may be necessary. 

Sowing. — But few varieties, or strains even, of flax 
have been introduced into the United States, much less 
• into the semi-arid country. In the latter it is grown 
exclusively for grain production, and only what may be 
termed the common variety is sown. Improved strains 
will doubtless come in the near future. 

The time of sowing varies much, even in the same 
locality. In common practise it covers a period of fully 
six weeks. In proximity to the Canadian border, the 
period during which flax is sown runs from, say, May 
1st to June 15th. The common idea that flax is easily 
destroyed by frost in the spring is not well founded. It 
will not stand so much frost as wheat and some other 
crops, but spring frosts of considerable severity will not 
kill it. To eliminate the elements of hazard from flax 
on spring-plowed land in a dry season, it should be sown 
not later than May 15th. This does not mean that in 
some instances good crops may not be grown on spring- 
plowed land sown late, and which was also plowed late 
and shallow. The favorite time for sowing flax in north- 
ern areas is the month of May. Southward it should be 
sown earlier. The hazard from late sowing comes, first, 
from dry weather that may follow the sowing, and, sec- 
ond, from frost that may overtake the crop when in the 
boll stage. 

Before sowing flax, unless the farmer is fully as- 
sured that the seed is absolutely free from wilt spores, 
he should not fail to treat it with a 40 per cent, solu- 
tion of formaldehyde and water. One pint of formalde- 
hyde is used to 40 gallons of water. The solution is 
best applied with a spray pump that will throw a fine 



248 DRY LAND FARMING 

spray. When applying it to the seed, it is spread thinly 
on a floor. While one person sprays the seed, a second 
person rakes it over to prevent the seeds from adhering 
as they would if not so stirred. The dampening should 
be thorough and complete. The seed should then be 
covered with a covering of some kind for a couple of 
hours, that the fumes may have opportunity to permeate 
the mass. When this dread disease once gets into the 
soil, it remains in the same for several years, and while 
it does, flax should not be again sown on such land. 

It is much safer to sow flax with the drill than broad- 
cast, as complete germination from drill sowing is much 
more sure than from broadcast sowing. The hazard from 
broadcast sowing increases with the lateness of the sow- 
ing and increasing dryness in the weather. On many 
soils the press drill does the best work, as its use facili- 
tates quick germination in the seed. 

The seed should, as a rule, be sown shallow rather 
than deep. In loose and very porous soils it may go 
down to the depth of 2 to 3 inches. In heavy soils 
and moist, it may not be buried more than 1 to 2 inches 
without weakening the early growth of the plants. Flax 
seed has not much power to sustain growth in plants 
that are buried deeply before they reach the surface. 
In dry weather, nevertheless, the seed must be put down 
to moisture before it can reach the surface. 

The amount of seed to sow will run between the 
extremes of 1 and 2 pecks. On well prepared land 1% 
pecks per acre will suffice, where the rainfall is about 
15 inches in a year. Where the seed is purchased, the 
farmer should guard carefully against the introduction 
of foul weed seed. 

Care of the crop. — After flax has been sown, but 
little can be done with it to promote growth by way of 
manipulating the soil, as the plants are easily injured 
when young. If the crop is sown on land more or less 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 249 

cloddy, or soddy on the surface, or covered with no 
little trash, as when strong stubbles are prepared by 
discing for receiving the seed, the harrow can seldom 
or never be used on such land after the crop is up, with- 
out doing more harm than good. This means that the 
harrow cannot be used on a flax crop sown, as it so fre- 
quently is, on land plowed shallow and on which pieces 
of broken sod are strewn. The harrow may be used, 
however, in some instances, if the land becomes much 
encrusted on the surface soon after sowing the flax, or 
even at a later period. When the surface is smooth 
and fine, the harrow may, in many instances, be used 
with advantage when the plants are, say, 3 to 4 inches 
high. When the ground is cloddy, the roller or the 
planker should be run over the land before sowing the 
seed. The weeder will, in many instances, serve a better 
purpose than the harrow on a growing crop. 

Harvesting. — The crop is ready for harvesting when 
the greater portion of the bolls have turned brown. The 
stems will still be green. The cutting should be promptly 
done in dry areas, as the crop usually ripens up quickly, 
and if not cut until over-ripe, much loss may result from 
the shedding of the bolls during the process of har- 
vesting. 

The crop is best cut with a reaper that will lay the 
grain in loose sheaves of suitable size for easy lifting. 
The grain will dry quickly, and is best threshed from 
the sheaf. But in case of necessity it may be stacked. 
Should the straw be unusually long, it may be bound 
while being cut. 

The crop is threshed as other grain is threshed. The 
yields in the semi-arid country run all the way from no 
return on poorly prepared land in a dry season to 30 
bushels per acre in a bountiful season. The average 
crop should be not far from 10 to 12 bushels in dry areas. 



250 DRY LAND FARMING 

GROWING BARLEY 

The barley crop ranks high among the crops that 
will be grown in the semi-arid belt. This arises from 
the fact: (1) that it furnishes varieties with adaptation 
for brewing and other varieties specially well adapted 
to the feeding of live stock ; (2) that it furnishes brew- 
ing barley of the highest quality ; (3) that it matures 
early in the season and before the weather reaches the 
maximum of heat or drought, and (4) that it furnishes 
a valuable forage that, in some of its varieties, may be 
fed as hay in the unthreshed form, alone or in conjunc- 
tion with other crops. It may also be made to furnish 
good pasture for swine in case of need. This, at least, 
is true of some of its varieties. It may be grown in some 
areas by sowing both in the autumn and in the spring. 

Soils. — Barley will grow in good form on many of 
the soils of the dry west. The clay loam soils of the 
Plains country are well adapted to its growth. With a 
reasonable sprinkling of sand they are further improved. 
The volcanic ash soils of the west have shown high 
adaptation to the growth of barley. The same is true 
of soils in the foothills of the mountains, which are rich 
in humus. Soils low in adaptation are sands and gravels 
that will soon lose their moisture supply. On the latter 
the growth of straw is so light that the heads are small, 
and the yields, also, are correspondingly small. 

Place in rotation. — Barley, like wheat, may safely 
follow the bare-fallow and also a cultivated crop. When 
thus grown the yields are usually larger than those ob- 
tained from wheat, and when of the brewing varieties 
the price is frequently as high as that of wheat, because 
of the high quality of the same. Where the rainfall 
is reasonably liberal, barley may also be made the second 
crop on well prepared land after summer-fallow, where 
the rainfall is 15 inches and more. Barley, under certain 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 251 

conditions, may be followed by a winter crop drilled 
into the stubbles, as winter wheat or winter rye. It may 
also be followed by a cultivated crop, as corn, or by 
summer-fallow. The best crops of barley will come after 
summer-fallow or after a cultivated crop. 

Preparing the soil. — Barley is a crop that grows 
rapidly, hence the seed bed should be in good condition. 
It does not feed so deeply as some of the other cereals. 
It is greatly important Avhen growing barley that the 
seed bed shall be in good condition, mechanically, and 
well stored with readily available plant food. The prepa- 
ration of summer-fallow and of cultivated land is the 
same, virtually, as for wheat (see p. 218). Where the 
rainfall exceeds 15 inches and where much of the rain 
falls in the growing period, barley may be sown late, as 
an aid in the cleaning of the land. This follows, first, 
from the opportunity given to harass weeds from the 
opening of spring until the barley is sown, and from the 
rapid growth of the barley, which makes it possible to 
mature it before many weeds can ripen their seeds. But 
where the rainfall is very light such a course would be 
followed by absolute failure in the crop in a dry season. 

Sowing. — The varieties of barley may be classified : 
(1) as winter or spring; (2) bearded brewing barleys, 
which are two, four and six rowed ; (3) bearded six- 
rowed barleys which are hulless ; (4)' beardless two and 
six-rowed barleys which retain their hulls, and (5) 
beardless barleys which are also hulless. The Tennessee 
is probably the best known of the winter varieties. The 
northerly limit for the growth of winter barley has not 
as yet been definitely defined, but it would seem safe 
to say that it may be grown with success as far north 
as central Oregon. Among the best of the brewing bar- 
leys are the Chevalier, Goldthorpe and Mensury. The 
two former are two-rowed and the latter is six-rowed. 
One of the most valuable of the bearded hulless varieties 



253 DRY LAND FARMING 

is the blue or purple hulless, which weighs very heavily. 
Valuable brewing barleys that retain their hulls are 
frequently grown with much success in the semi-arid 
west. The barleys most generally grown are those that 
are beardless and also hulless. The white hulless is a 
favorite variety. One objection to these barleys is that 
they are carried on weak straw, and a further objection 
is that they are too hard for most kinds of feeding, in 
the unprepared form. Nevertheless they are the most 
popular of the dry farm feeding barleys, more especially 
those of them that are six-rowed. More commonly bar- 
ley is white, but blue and black and various shades are 
by no means uncommon. 

Barley should, as a rule, be sown early, but not quite 
so early as wheat under all conditions of growth. Though 
not so rugged as wheat, nevertheless it will stand freez- 
ing that is somewhat severe w^ithout serious injury. 
Far north, in dry areas, it is not usually sown before 
May 1st. Far south in the same, it may be sown nearly 
two months earlier. It may be grown on higher eleva- 
tions than almost any other grain, because of the short 
period called for in order to mature it, but when grown 
in such areas the sowing must be late. 

This crop is almost invariably sown with the grain 
drill. The advantages from sowing it thus are similar 
to those which follow sowing wheat in the same way 
(see p. 173). The same is true of it whether sown alone 
or in combination with some other grain. Barley should 
not be sown quite as deeply as wheat, but the difference 
is not marked. From 2 to 3 inches should be the rule, 
with variations to suit the needs of the soil and the 
depth of the moisture at the time for sowing. 

The amount of seed to sow will vary from, say, 3 
to 5 pecks under the varying conditions met with in the 
dry country. From 3 to 4 pecks per acre will meet the 
needs of nearly all the varying soil conditions where the 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 253 

rainfall is approximately 15 inches per year. When sown 
alone to furnish hay, not less than 5 pecks should usually 
be sown. 

Care of the crop. — About the only care than can be 
given to barley on non-irrigated lands after it has been 
sown, is to harrow it as frequently as may be necessary 
and at the time that may be opportune in each instance. 




DRY LAND WHITE HULLESS BARLEY, DAWS0N£C0., MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 



It may usually be harrowed with profit when the blades 
begin to show, whether the ground is or it not crusted, 
for many weeds will be thus destroyed just when they 
begin to form roots. Subsequently the number of the har- 
rowings must be determined by the character of the 
weather and the severity of the same that may be present 
in each instance. Usually from two to three harrowings 
will suffice. 



254 DRY LAND FARMING 

Harvesting. — Barley should be harvested at an early 
stage of maturity, more especially when it is to be de- 
voted to brewing uses. The best time at which to har- 
vest the crop for such a use is when the stalk has turned 
yellow for a few inches below the head, the heads having 
assumed a yellowish tint, though still shaded with green. 
Such early harvesting favors the bright color so much 
desired by the brewers. This bright color is further 
favored by the dry and bright character of the weather 
that usually characterizes the harvest season. To secure 
this color with barley grown in various localities that 
are humid, bleaching must needs be resorted to. Vari- 
eties for feeding should also be cut thus early, as, when 
not cut early, the loss is usually quite material from the 
breaking off of the heads. When cut for hay the crop 
should be harvested when the grain is in the dough stage. 
For such a use the beardless varieties have highest adap- 
tation. 

The crop is cut with the harvester and is cured in 
shocks, long or round, usually the latter, and from the 
shocks it is drawn to the stack or threshing machine. 
If the shocks are to remain for any considerable time in 
the field, they should be capped, especially the brewing 
varieties, to prevent loss of the bright color through un- 
due exposure. When stacked, the curing should be 
complete before the grain is thus put up, lest musting 
of the grain should follow from fermentation. Thresh- 
ing is done in the usual way, that is, by using the grain 
separator. Of course the saving in labor is very con- 
siderable when this can be done from the shock. The 
average yields are from 30 to 35 bushels per acre. 

GROWING OATS 

There is no food crop for live stock "which is more 
desirable to grow in dry areas than oats. In some of 
their varieties they may be grown quite satisfactorily 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 255 

on a rainfall of 15 inches and even on less than that 
amount, but it is not so easy, nevertheless, to grow good 
crops of oats with assured certainty in the semi-arid 
belt as some of the other small grain crops. This arises, 
first, from the fact that oats may not be sown quite so 
safely early in the season as these, and, second, because 
of the heavier drain on soil moisture which it is claimed 
is necessary to meet the needs of the crop. This crop is 




DRY LAND CANADIAN WHITE OATS, FERGUS CO., MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 



of both spring and winter varieties. The latter of course, 
can only be grown in the milder latitudes. It is grown 
both for the grain and to provide hay. 

Soils. — The oat crop will grow on a wide range of 
soils, but it does not succeed well in the semi-arid coun- 
try on soils that lose moisture readily. Loam soils that 
are reasonably friable and moist have highest adapata- 



256 DRY LAND FARMING 

tion for the growth of oats. They will also grow better 
relatively on soils that are impregnated with considerable 
quantities of alkali than any of the cereals. Soils natur- 
ally dry and leachy and low in the elements of fertility 
are illy adapted to the growth of oats, but they have 
greater power than wheat to gather plant food under 
untoward conditions. 

Place in rotation. — The oat crop may be given al- 
most any place in the rotation, but, of course, not equally 
well. The most favorable conditions for oats are on 
summer-fallowed land or on land that has grown a well 
cared for crop. But where the rainfall is more than 15 
inches, the crop may come as the second on land thus 
prepared, as wheat is usually assigned the first place 
on fallow or cultivated land. It does better, relatively, 
on sod newly broken than many other crops, but it 
should not be sown on such land unless it has ample 
moisture in it to insure germination. Where the rainfall 
is less than 15 inches, farmers should be slow to sow oats 
after other grain, unless the previous season has been 
of a character to store the subsoil with an ample supply 
of moisture. This crop should, as a rule, be followed by 
the bare-fallow, or by a cultivated crop, such as corn. 
Under very dry conditions, oats will not succeed after 
a grain crop, no matter how the land may be prepared. 

Preparing the soil. — When the oat crop is sown on 
fallow land, or on land that has grown a cultivated crop, 
the preparation of the land is the same as for wheat. 
When it is sown on sod land newly broken, the breaking 
should be done early and should be reasonably deep. A 
good, fine seed bed should be made, though firm below. 
The aim should be to have the surface as free as possible 
from sods, that the harrow may be used on the growing 
crop, if necessary, without detriment to it. If oats is 
the second crop on breaking, it may be better to disc 
the ground autumn and spring rather than plowing it. 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 257 

when preparing it for oats. If oats is made the second 
crop after summer-fallow, the land should be worked in 
the autumn by the aid of the plow or disc and harrow, or 
by the aid of all of these, as may be thought best. 

Sowing. — The best varieties to sow will be influ- 
enced by soil and climatic conditions. The quick matur- 
ing varieties have been found the most suitable in dry 
seasons, as the dry weather of the approaching harvest 




DRY LAND SIXTY-DAY OATS, CHOTEAU COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 

season will injure the crop less than if maturity in it was 
later. In reasonablv moist seasons, varieties that are 
slower in maturing will give larger yields, but since it 
cannot be known beforehand as to the character of the 
season, it is safer to give the preference to early matur- 
ing varieties. Of the spring varieties the Sixty-day oat is 
one of the most popular, because of the early season at 



258 DRY LAND FARMING 

which it matures. The straw is short, which is so far 
against it, and the kernel is small, but it will frequently 
produce a crop where later varieties would fail. Nearly 
akin to it is the Kherson. The Burt and Swedish Select 
have proved satisfactory. Where the rainfall is reason- 
ably ample, such later maturing varieties as the Scottish 
Chief, Black Beauty, Lincoln and White Abundance 
may give larger yields than the early varieties. The 
Texas Rust Proof is one of the best winter varieties. In 
Utah the Boswell is well spoken of. 

Oats are not so hardy as wheat, and because of this 
should not be sown quite so early. Usually, however, 
after the wheat, spring rye and speltz crops have been 
sown, it will be quite safe to sow oats. It is hazardous 
to sow them late. The winter varieties should be sown 
early enough to give them a good start before winter. 
The sowing of oats in the spring should be completed 
before it is time to plant corn, that is, not later, as a rule, 
than the middle of May in northern areas. . 

The crop should invariably be sown with the drill 
where it is to be had. If a drill is not obtainable, it may 
be a wise plan to sow the crop broadcast and cover it 
with the disc, but under such a condition of sowing it 
is not possible to cover the seed uniformly. 

The oat crop does not require burial so deeply as 
will best meet the needs of the wheat crop. With ample 
moisture near the surface, 2 inches would be amply deep 
for oats in heavy soils, but in light and humus soils it 
may be advantageous to plant them more deeply. They 
will not germinate, of course, until they reach moisture. 

On well prepared land, 4 pecks of seed will be 
enough for average soils, with many varieties. But some 
varieties may call for more seed, as when they are pos- 
sessed of a very large kernel. The stooling properties, 
of course, have a bearing on the amount of seed that 
should be used. It should seldom or never exceed 5 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 259 

pecks to the acre, and in many instances 4 pecks will 
be ample. 

Care of the crop. — The oat crop may be harrowed in 
much the same way as the wheat crop. The extent of 
the harrowing that may be given is practically similar. 
The instructions that bear on the harrowing of wheat 
will apply about equally to oats. 



muimMm^ 



S^rJ^ 'h 





DRY LAND OATS, FLATHEAD VALLEY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 



Harvesting. — The oat crop is ready to harvest when 
the heads have assumed a whitish yellow tint. The stem 
above the ground and below the head for a few inches 
in each instance will have assumed a yellow tint, but the 
body of the stem will still be green. If left till over-ripe, 
there will be serious loss from shelling through swaying 
caused by passing winds. For hay the crop should be 
cut a little under-ripe. 

The binder is more commonly used for harvesting 
the crop for the grain, and in some instances also for 
hay. In other instances the mower is used to cut the 



260 DRY LAND FARMING 

hay crop. The header may be used, but the areas grown 
are not usually large enough to make such harvesting 
advantageous. 

The oat crop is generally cured in the round shock- 
in areas where strong winds prevail. The crop may be 
readily and safely stacked when cured, or it may, of 
course, be threshed from the shock. The ordinary thresh- 
er is commonly used. The average yields on dry land 
will be about 40 bushels, with maximum vields of, say. 
75 to 80 bushels. 

GROWING SPELTZ 

Speltz, more properly designated emmer, is of com- 
paratively recent introduction. It holds the grain which 
it produces tightly in the chafif scale and consequently 
resembles barley more than wheat. It is markedly 
drought-resistant, but the yields differ much in different 
localities. In the west it is grown solely for the purpose 
of providing food for live stock, for which it has a value 
ranking almost equally high with barley. Heretofore 
spring varieties, mainly, have been grown, but during re- 
cent years Buft'um has evolved some winter varieties of 
much promise that have proved hardy on the plateaus of 
Wyoming and Colorado. 

Soils. — Since speltz is a rugged plant, it may be 
grown on a wide range of soils. Of course those that 
are well stored with plant food and that hold moisture 
well will give the best crops, but good crops may be 
grown where the moisture content is low. It would 
seem correct to say that it will grow on soils lower in 
plant food than would be suitable for barley, but has 
not more power than barley to grow on alkali or gumbo 
lands. 

Place in the rotation. — The best crops of speltz 
grown in the semi-arid country will come after fallowed 
land or land that had grown a cultivated crop, but such 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 261 

land is more wanted for less rugged crops, as wheat and 
oats. Where the precipitation will admit of it, this crop 
is frequently made the second one after summer-fallow 
or otherwise cultivated land. This rotation, however, 
should not be attempted where the precipitation is quite 
low. Where it is below 15 inches per year, speltz should, 
as a rule, be followed by summer-fallow or a cultivated 
crop. Speltz may be grown on breaking, but it will not 
grow so well on such land as some other crops, as, for 
instance, flax. 

Preparing the soil. — When speltz is grown on sum- 
mer-fallow or after a cultivated crop, the preparation of 
the land involved is the same as for wheat (see p. 218) 
and for the other cereals discussed. When it is made 
the second crop in succession after these, the land should 
in nearly all instances be plowed in the autumn, and 
prefera1)ly after discing, with an interval between the 
discing and the plowing, which should be followed at 
once with the harrow. Early stirring in the spring is 
also, of course, essential. Should the speltz follow a 
crop sown on sod, discing autunni and spring without 
plowing may, in some instances, furnish the most suit- 
able preparation that may be given to the land. 

Sowing. — The introduced varieties of speltz are not 
many and the introduction has been so recent that they 
have not been much advertised in the past under dis- 
tinctive names. Black winter emmer is probably the 
best of the winter varieties. 

As speltz is very hardy, it would seem safe to say 
that it may be sown as early in the spring as the land 
is suitable for working. It will then mature early, but 
not so early as winter wheat. That autumn-sown should 
be put into the ground as early as winter wheat. 

The grain is best sown with the drill, but it may 
be covered with a disc in the absence of a drill. Because 
of the relatively large size of the grain, it is more easily 



262 DRY LAND FARMING 

uncovered by rain than some other grains when the crop 
has been harrowed in. 

The seed may be put in with best advantage to the 
depth of, say, 2i/2 to 3 inches, but there may be some 
necessity for modification in order to meet the needs of 
different soils and weather conditions. 

Speltz does not stool so abundantly as some other 
cereals. This fact, linked with the large size of the seed, 
calls for heavier seeding than in the case of some other 
cereals. Not less than 5 pecks should be sown per acre 
on average soils. 

Care of the crop. — The crop should be harrowed 
much the same as other cereals. What was said with 
reference to harrowing wheat will apply about equally 
to the harvesting of speltz. 

Harvesting. — Speltz should be harvested while the 
stems, except below the head and near the ground, have 
not yet assumed a decidedl}'- yellowish tint. The hazard 
from loss in harvesting comes from the breaking of the 
heads of over-ripe grain. The binder is used in harvesting 
the crop and the grain is generally cured in the round 
shock. It is threshed in the ordinary way. The yields 
run all the way from, say, 10 to 70 bushels per acre, with 
an average somewhere between 25 and 35 bushels. 

GROWING PEAS 

This crop will have an important mission in the semi- 
arid country when its merits shall have become generally 
known in the same. But its adaptation is by no means 
equal for all parts of this area. It will grow much bet- 
ter on the loam soils of the cool and elevated plateaus 
than on the silty soils of the hot valleys, in the absence 
of irrigation. It will be grown for the grain, for forage, 
for swine pasture and for fertilization. 

Soils. — Loam soils, mild and moist, have high adap- 
tation for peas, but they will also give good returns in 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 263 

sandy loams ; that is, sandy soils with enough of the clay 
element in them to make them retentive of nloisture are 
specially well adapted to the growth of this crop. They 
will fail on loose and coarse sands and gravels under dry 
conditions. 

Place in the rotation. — Where the rainfall is less than 
15 inches, peas will give the best returns by far from 
summer-fallowed land that has grown a cultivated crop. 
But where the rainfall approaches 18 to 20 inches, peas 
may be made to follow a grain crop of the previous year, 
regardless of the character of the same. They grow well 
on sod that has a fair amount of moisture in it, whether 
of new or older breaking, but the best returns will come 
when the sod has been prepared on the summer-fallow 
plan. Usually this crop may be followed by small grain, 
whether grown in the usual way or as a cultivated crop, 
but when grown by the latter method the results will be 
much more satisfactory from the grain crop. Peas, from 
their recumbent habit of growth in the later stages 
thereof, act somewhat as a mulch and thus far they pre- 
vent the escape of soil moisture. 

Preparing the soil. — When grown on fallow land, 
the preparation of the soil is the same as for wheat (see 
p. 218). When grown after small grain, the aim should 
be to prepare the land by plowing and harrowing or by 
discing. The plowing and harrowing should be done 
in the autumn, but to this method there may be the ex- 
ception of first sowing the peas and then burying them 
with the plow, a method that is sometimes followed when 
the rainfall is reasonably copious. 

Sowing. — The varieties to sow will depend some- 
what on the object for which the crop is grown. When 
grown for the grain, what is designated as the Canada 
field pea of one of the small varieties is usually sown. 
This may mean that the variety may be the Mummy, the 
Golden Vine, the Prussian Blue, or some other of the 



264 DRY LAND FARMING 

many varieties of the Canadian peas that are grown. 
The colors embraced will be white, yellow, gray or blue, 
according to the variety grown. The Mexican is some- 
times sown in the higher mountain valleys to provide 
grazing. When sown for plowing under to enrich the 
land, the large Marrowfat varieties will best serve the 
purpose. When garden varieties are grown, especially 
in the absence of irrigation, the dwarf and earl}^ matur- 
ing varieties will probably give the best results. 

Peas should be sown early, as early in the season 
as the ground is in condition for being worked. Late 
sowing has been the cause of many failures in the at- 
tempt to grow peas. Only when sown on irrigated land 
and when the crop is to be buried as a fertilizer will it 
be in order to sow the crop late. Under dry conditions 
such sowing would result in certain failure. 

Ordinarily the crop is sown with the grain drill. 
When thus sown, it should be buried deeply. This is im- 
portant because of the favorable bearing which it has 
upon resistance to drought. Care must be taken not to use 
a drill that will break the peas in the act of sowing them. 
They may be covered by discing when drill sowing is not 
possible. The common harrow does not provide a suf- 
ficiently deep covering for the peas. A shower following 
such a covering will uncover many of the peas. When 
sowing the garden varieties they are frequently put in 
with a hand drill, but may be sown with a grain drill by 
using only such of the spouts as may be necessary. In 
some instances, double rows are planted, making the two 
rows thus planted about 6 inches apart. The distance 
between the rows, single or double, is from 30 to 42 
inches, according to the variety. They should be far 
enough apart to admit of easy cultivation. 

Field peas are, in some instances, sown thus, but 
whether it will pay better to grow them thus than in 
the ordinary way, under average conditions of growth. 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 265 

has yet to be proved. When sown broadcast, and plowed 
under, the seed should be harrowed before the land is 
plowed, lest the peas should lodge in rows correspondii:j.', 
to the width of the plow furrows when this work is 
done. They may also be buried lightly with a drill be- 
fore the land is thus plowed. 

The depth to which the seed will be sown depends 
on the soil and the method of sowing. The aim should 
be to plant the peas deeply, as deeply, as a rule, as 3 to 5 
inches, not only to enable the crop the better to with- 
stand drought, but also to make practicable the careful 
and thorough harrowing of the ground before the crop 
is up. When it is to be irrigated, planting thus deeply 
is not a necessity. 

The amount of seed to sow will depend : first, on 
the normal amount of rainfall ; second, on the kind of 
the peas ; third, on the method of sowing, and, fourth, on 
the object for which the crop is grown. Where the 
normal rainfall is about 15 inches, about 5 pecks per 
acre, of the small varieties will suffice for sowing the. 
crop in the usual way. When sown in rows for being- 
cultivated, from, say, 1-3 to 1-2 the usual amount should 
prove ample. When small dwarf varieties are sown, as 
much as 1 to 2 bushels are sometimes sown in drills 
that are to be cultivated, but the latter amount would 
seem to be excessive for such sowing. From 25 to 50 
per cent, more seed is usually called for when very large 
peas are sown as compared with those of ordinary size. 
When the crop is grown for burial, more seed may be 
used than if grown for the grain, especially when the 
crop is to be irrigated. 

Care of the crop. — The aim should be to thoroughly 
harrow the ground while the peas are yet from 1 to 2 
inches short of the surface. This, in ground possessed of 
numerous weed seeds, is important, as subsequent to 
the appearance of the plant above ground, if the crop 



266 DRY LAND FARMING 

should be harrowed, the work must be done in a cautious 
way, otherwise it may harmed more than benefited. 
When planted in rows wide enough for cultivating be- 
tween them, such cultivation may be given as soon as 
the line of the row can be distinctly traced. It should 
be sufficiently frequent to keep the land clean and to 
prevent the escape of moisture. It cannot be continued 
longer than the period when the peas become recumbent. 
This period is hastened or retarded by the kind of pea, 
and the character of the wind and rain storms. The short, 
stocky garden varieties stand best against the influences 
of storms and may, therefore, be cultivated for a longer 
period than tall-growing varieties. The garden varieties 
are usually gone over once by hand, to remove from 
the rows any plants of a different variety that may be 
present. 

Harvesting. — Peas are ready for being harvested 
when, say, the lower two-thirds of the pods are fully ripe. 
When cut at this stage of maturity, the straw makes excel- 
lent fodder, when cured in the absence of rain. When the 
crop is grown for the grain and also for the straw, it is 
best harvested by the aid of a pea-harvester, that is, an 
attachment fastened on the cutter bar of a field mower. 
This attachment has guards which run under the pros- 
trate vines and lift them up so that the knives can cut 
them. Two work hands follow and bunch them with 
the aid of forks, at the same time lifting the bunches out 
of the way of the horses that draw the mower. In, say, 
two days of good weather they may be drawn and 
threshed or stacked, as may be desired. In the Plains 
country they should be at once lifted when dry, lest 
the winds should carry the bundles far over the unfenced 
country. The stacks will not withstand rain as some crops 
do, unless topped out with some more resistant sub- 
stance. 



GROWING GRAIN CROPS IN DRY AREAS 267 

The field crop is threshed by the ordinary grain 
thresher, but in order to prevent breaking the peas the 
concaves are removed and replaced with others made of 
strong v^ood, as oak, and which are furnished with only 
a few teeth. Careful attention must also be given to 
the regulation of the speed in threshing. In this way 
the breaking of the peas may be reduced to a minimum. 

In some instances field peas are harvested by the 
use of the old-fashioned revolving horse rake. The ob- 
jection to this mode of harvesting is, first, the extent 
to which the straw becomes impregnated with dust, thus 
lessening its feeding value, and, second, the extent to 
which the peas are shelled in the process of harvesting 
They may also be harvested by the use of the ordinary 
horse rake, but the loss from shelling when thus har- 
vested is also very considerable. On small areas a farmer 
may cut them or pull them, as the phrase is ordinarily 
termed, with the scythe, and may use the old-fashioned 
flail in threshing them. In this way the farmer may 
grow his own seed more cheaply than he can buy it. 
The average yield is about 20 bushels per acre. Maxi- 
mum yields are, say, 45 bushels. 

Field peas may also be harvested by sheep and swine 
in the semi-arid country. This is made easily practicable 
by the dry weather at the harvest season. When the ma- 
tured crop is thus grazed ofif by sheep or lambs, it is 
usual to sow some oats with the peas. This aids in sus- 
taining them, and in consequence the waste is less than 
it would otherwise be. This method of harvesting the 
crop is regularly practised in the San Luis valley of 
Colorado, and it is capable of being extended to many 
mountain valleys in the semi-arid country. One acre 
of peas thus grown has been found capable of sustaining 
say, 10 lambs while being fattened. The sheep and lambs 
are turned in on the crop a soon as it has reached early 
maturity. The plan which divides the area by the use 



268 DRY LAND FARMING 

of movable hurdles finds most favor when this crop is 
being grazed. Any waste through shelling may be vir- 
tually avoided by allowing swine to follow the sheep 
as gleaners. This method of harvesting insures the 
consumption of the greater portion of the entire crop. 

The pea crop may also be harvested by swine. When 
thus harvested, the crop may be sown alone better than 
with other grain. The swine may be allowed to feed 
upon the crop beginning with the early stage of ripening 
and continuing the same until the crop is consumed. 
The last of the gleaning should be done by other swine 
that are not being fattened during the process of glean- 
ing. The straw will be lost for feeding uses by such 
gleaning. The dry harvest season in the semi-arid coun- 
try makes such gleaning entirely practicable. 

When the crop is grown to furnish seed for table 
use, it may be harvested with the pea-harvester as out- 
lined above, or it may be cut with a bean harvester. 
The threshing is very frequently done by using 
the same machine that is used in threshing beans (see 
p. 299). 

When the crop is grown to provide green manure, it 
may be sown on irrigated land that is to be summer-fal- 
lowed the same season. The sowing should take place 
quite early. The crop should be buried when coming 
into bloom, and a spring cereal crop will usually be made 
to follow. On such land, the food furnished by such a 
crop is usually considered too valuable for such burial. 
When sown on irrigated land for such a use, the peas 
are usually sown after a grain crop has been harvested 
for the season. Where the seed is home grown and 
cheap, this method of adding vegetable matter and fer- 
tility to the land is very satisfactory. 



CHAPTER XII 
GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 

In all areas where the rainfall is less than could be 
desired, the growing of cultivated crops will always have 
a relatively important place. This arises in part from the 
degree of the certainty with which these crops may be 
grown with success, and in part from the excellent prepa- 
ration which they make for the growing of the small 
grains that follow them in the rotation. 

The more important of the crops that must always 
be given cultivation in these areas to grow them at their 
best are: (1) corn; (2) the sorghums; (3) potatoes; (4) 
field beans; (5) field roots, and (6) artichokes. These 
are probably valuable in the order named. Of course, 
various other valuable plants, as alfalfa, are given more 
or less cultivation during the period of their growth, but 
when growing them cultivation is not always impera- 
tively necessary. 

GROWING CORN 

Beyond all question, corn is by far the most impor- 
tant cultivated crop that will ever be grown in the semi- 
arid country. The great significance of the crop for 
such areas lies in the fact, first, that it will be the most 
important source of fodder obtainable, with the possible 
exception of alfalfa ; second, that it is the surest important 
crop obtainable from spring-plowed land and from land 
that has produced a crop of small grain the previous 
year; and, third, that a crop of small grain may be grown 
after corn which will give a fair return almost any 
season. This crop will be grown for the fodder alone, 
for fodder and grain combined, and for the grain alone. 
For the fodder only it will be grown under climatic con- 
ditions that will not properly mature the crop because 



270 DRY LAND FARMING. 

of high latitude or altitude. For the combined purpose 
the chief aim sought in growing it will be fodder. But 
the more grain that it will grow in addition to the fod- 
der, the more valuable will it be. For the grain only or 
mainly, it will be grown to provide food for swine that 
will harvest it in the field, and in some instances, in the 
more favorable locations, the ears will be snapped from 
the standing crop as is done in the corn belt. For the, 
fodder and grain combined, it may be grown in paying 
quantities in the most northerly sections of the United 
States, up to the elevation of 4,000 to 4,500 feet. Farther 
south it may be grown at an altitude higher in propor- 
tion as it is farther south. The area devoted to the grow- 
ing of corn in the near future will probably be second 
only to that devoted to the growth of wheat. 

Soils. — Corn will grow on any soil well adapted to 
wheat. This means that it will grow under proper con- 
ditions on nearly all the bench lands of the semi-arid 
west, save on lands that are impregnated with alkali. It 
will also grow on lands which contain a quantity of 
humus in excess of the need of the wheat crop. The 
soils with highest adaptation for the growth of corn are 
rich, friable loams. Sandy loams are even better adapted 
relatively to the growth of corn than to the growth o^ 
wheat. Stiff clays, leachy gravels and alkali lands are 
ill adapted to the growth of this plant. 

Place in the rotation. — -Corn may be given any place 
in the rotation. Generally speaking, however, it would 
not be wise to grow corn on summer-fallowed land or 
after a cultivated crop, as ground thus prepared is usually 
wanted in order to grow upon it crops of small grain. It 
is one of the best crops to grow on sod land, whether 
new breaking or sod formed by tame grasses or by clo- 
vers, including alfalfa. It is also one of the safest crops 
to grow after small grain. There are conditions, dorfbt- 
less, in which the moisture supply may be too small 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 271 

after such grain to grow a crop of corn, but this will 
seldom occur. Such a result need not be feared with 
a rainfall of 12 to 15 inches on land properly prepared, 
providing the larger proportion of the rainfall is in the 
growing season. The place more commonly assigned to 
corn will doubtless be after small grain. 

Corn should almost invariably be followed by small 
grain or by alfalfa. The moisture conserved by the culti- 
vation given to the corn insures the success of the grain 
crop when it is properly grown. It would be safe to 
say that where the rainfall is from 12 to 15 inches, as 
good crops of small grains may be obtained after corn 
as after the bare-fallow. Where the rainfall is between 
15 and 20 inches, as in some parts of the Dakotas and 
western Canada, the grain crops that follow corn are 
frequently better than those grown on fallow land, be- 
cause of the tendency to lodging in grain grown on the 
latter. 

Preparing the soil. — The preparation that puts the 
land in the best condition for growing a crop of corn 
will depend on the place given to this crop in the rotation. 
When corn is planted on new breaking or on any kind oi 
sod land, the best crops will be obtained from land that 
has been broken the previous year and handled on the 
summer-fallowed plan (see p. 168). But good crops of 
corn may be usually grown on such land when spring- 
plowed, providing the plowing is done at a depth that 
will admit of making a fine and good seed bed, and that 
it is done sufficiently early to give ample time for making- 
such a seed bed. The land should be plowed deeply, not 
less than 6 inches, and as early in the season as the work 
can be profitably done. It should be at once compressed, 
disced and harrowed, so as to make about 3 inches of 
fine soil on the surface. When the land is plowed thus 
deeply, the sods will be buried so far as not to interfere 
seriously with the after processes of cultivation. If 



272 DRY LAND FARMING 

moisture is reasonably plentiful, sod land may be plowed 
just before planting the corn, and the results may be 
entirely satisfactory, as the grass on land plowed at such 
a time aids in the quick decay of the sod. 

The homesteader may, and does, grow corn by break- 
ing sod land shallow and strewing the seed by hand in, 
say, every third furrow. Reasonably good crops have 




DRY LAND FODDER CORN, GROWN NEAR BROADVIEW, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 



been grown thus and without any further lab6r than that 
of dropping the seed, which soon produces growth that 
comes up through the overturned sod. The best crops of 
corn cannot be obtained from planting it thus, nor does 
it put the land in the best condition for the crop that will 
follow. When corn is planted thus, every care should 
be taken to disc the ground and smooth the surface after 
the corn has been planted, and before the crop has 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 273 

reached the surface of the ground. Even though further 
cultivation should be omitted the ground is so far made 
capable of retaining moisture. 

In all areas where the land has been cultivated for a 
term of years, corn will generally be grown after a crop 
of small grain. When it is thus grown, the aim should 
be to plow the ground in the fall, and as early as possible. 
It may be advantageous, as when there is some moisture 
in the subsoil, to double disc it as soon as the grain has 
been removed. The plowing should be deep and the 
harrow should immediately follow. Subsoil packing of 
ground thus plowed will seldom be necessary. In the 
spring, as soon as the season will admit of it. the land 
should be disced and harrowed, and, if necessary, should 
be stirred once or twice again with the harrow at in- 
tervals before the corn is planted. If the land cannot be 
plowed until spring, the aim should be to plow it early 
and deeply. Subsurface packing will then be in order 
to firm the seed bed below, should moisture in the ground 
be lacking at such a time. Planting corn on spring- 
plowed land in dry areas is usually much more hazard- 
ous than on autumn-plowed land. 

If farmyard manure is applied, this is best done be- 
fore the land is plowed, whether in the autumn or the 
spring, and by a manure spreader. If the manure is 
fresh and has much litter admixed with it, the applica- 
tion should be light, less than ten loads rather than more 
per acre, lest the straw in the manure should maintain 
too porous a condition of the soil. When the manure is 
possessed of a small amount of litter, it may be applied 
on autumn-plowed land at any time subsequent to the 
plowing, and incorporated with the surface soil when the 
seed bed is being prepared. 

When manure can be thus applied, the benefits are 
speedily apparent. The time has not yet arrived for the 



374 DRY LAND FARMING 

discussion of fertilizers for corn in the semi-arid west, 
as the need for these has been but little felt. 

Planting. — It cannot be said with the assurance of 
certainty at the present time which are the best corns 
for each particular section of the dry country. This can 
only be determined by experiment, and the time for such 
experimentation has not been sufficiently long. A few 
years hence much more will be known with reference to 
varieties and their adaptation for dry areas than is known 
at the present time. 

It would seem correct to say, however, that four 
distinct classes of corn will be found suitable for the 
semi-arid country. These are: (1) flint corns; (2) dent 
corns ; (3) sweet corns, and (4) flour corns. The flint 
corns are best adapted to extreme northern conditions. 
The dent corns have adaptation to conditions less severe. 
The sweet corns may be grown over a wider area than 
the flint or dent varieties, and the flour corns are best 
suited to southern conditions. Varieties may yet be 
evolved with more complete adaptation to the environ- 
ments of each locality than those that are now grown. 

When determining as to the variety that shall be 
grown, the object sought in growing the crop should be 
carefully considered. If grain is the principal object 
sought, the fodder being a secondary object, those vari- 
eties should be grown which will give the largest yields 
under the average prevalent conditions. But if fodder is 
the primary object, then varieties should be grown which 
will give the largest amount of good fodder. The more 
grain production that can be linked with such fodder 
production, the more valuable will be the fodder thus 
produced. 

In northern areas the best varieties for producing 
grain include the Squaw corn, the Gehu and Golden dent. 
The Squaw corn is a low-growing variety, grown by 
the Indians, long years ago. It is a flint corn, white in 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 275 

color and very dwarfish in its habits of growth. It is 

peculiarly well adapted to dry areas. The Gehu is some- 
what larger and is also a white dent. The Golden dent 
is still larger than the Gehu. All these varieties mature 
in less than 90 days under average conditions of growth. 
They are too dwarfish, however, in their habits of 
growth to render them valuable for the production of 
fodder. They also produce ears so near the ground that 
they cannot be harvested satisfactorily with the aid of 
the corn binder. In those areas the best varieties for 
fodder mainly, will include the Mercer flint, the Triumph, 
also a flint corn, and the Northwestern dent. The last 
named produces grain with a reddish tint. It is more 
grown for fodder at the present time than any variety 
grown in the northwestern states. These varieties will 
mature inside of 100 days and they will produce from 2 
to 3 tons per acre of cured fodder. 

In the central states of the dry belt such varieties 
as the Minnesota No. 13 and Stowell's Evergreen sweet 
will give results that should prove satisfactory, when 
these are properly grown. The former should be grown 
primarily for the grain, and the latter for the fodder. 
Both varieties will mature in about 100 days. Other varie- 
ties will also give good results, as for instance, the Pride 
of the North. But the best varieties are yet to be evolved. 

In southern areas of the dry belt larger varieties 
and of slower maturity may be grown, but in the semi- 
arid areas of the south it will doubtless be found that 
some of the non-saccharine sorghums will better meet 
the needs of the farmer than corn because of their great- 
er ability to grow under dry conditions. These include 
Kafir corn and Milo maize (see p. 285). 

When corn is grown primarily for fodder in dry 
areas, a variety should be preferred that will furnish a 
fair amount of fodder, that is leafy in its habit of growth, 
that will mature in the interval between the last killing 



376 DRY LAND FARMING 

frosts of spring and the first killing frosts of autumn, 
and that will make sufficient growth to admit of being 
harvested by the aid of the corn harvester without break- 
ing off a large percentage of the ears, and that will ma- 
ture nubbins which will add materially to the value of 
the corn fodder. At the present time, it would be hazard- 
ous to say which variety will best meet all these con- 
ditions, but it is correct to say that Northwestern dent 
is more generally grown than any other variety. 

The time for planting corn will, of course, vary with 
latitude and altitude. Near to the Canadian boundary 
it will be, say. May 15th to June 1st. When corn is 
planted later, it is much liable to be injured by September 
frosts in the autumn. In the latitude named, corn planted 
as early as the middle of May is more or less liable 
to be cut down by frosts, but even so it is better to have 
growth thus retarded by frost in the spring than to have 
the crop injured by frost in the autumn. In the north- 
western states the crop is much less harmed by such a 
visitation than in the corn belt, owing probably to the 
much greater inherent hardihood of the varieties grown. 
These varieties will also be less harmed by planting 
them in a soil not yet warmed and in weather that is 
still cold. This may arise first, from the inherent vigor 
of the seed, and second, from peculiarities of soil and at- 
mospheric conditions. Those who plant" corn, therefore, 
should not be deterred from planting because of lack of 
complete propitiousness of the weather when the proper 
time arrives for planting. Going southward the season 
for planting advances. Near the Mexican boundary it 
may be planted in April, the time varying with the alti- 
tude. 

The method of planting will depend: (1) on the con- 
dition of the soil as to the presence or the absence of 
weed growth ; (2) on the object for which the corn is 
chiefly grown, and (3) on the crop that is to follow the 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 377 

corn. When weeds are abundant, the cultivation and 
therefore destruction of weeds will be more complete 
when it is planted in hills. The retention of soil mois- 
ture may also be secured in larger degree, since a rela- 
tively larger area of the surface is stirred when cultiva- 
tion can be given more than one way, which is the case 
in hill planting. When the corn is planted to produce 
ears mainly, it is usually planted in hills, but may also be 
planted in drills. When it is grown chiefly for fodder, it 
is usually planted in drills, because of the greater facility 
with which it may be harvested with the corn harvester, 
but it may also be planted in hills. When planted in drills, 
the grain drill may usually be made to do the work with- 
out investment in other machinery, and this fact furnishes 
a strong argument in favor of drill planting. When 
corn is to be followed by winter wheat or winter rye, the 
stalks or a portion of them being left to protect the 
grain in winter, the corn that has been grown in drills 
will furnish the most complete protection. 

When planted in hills, the use of the check-rower 
is indispensable where large areas are to be grown. 
Small areas may be planted with the hand planter, after 
the ground has first been marked off in squares with some 
kind of marker. The hills are usually made 3^ feet apart 
each way. When planted in drills the ordinary grain 
drill is commonly used, but the horse corn-planter may 
also be used. Only those drill tubes should be used which 
will plant the corn at a suitable distance between the 
rows. The distance most in favor is 3^ feet, as in the 
case of hills. In dry areas and especially in the north- 
erly portions of the same, it is not necessary to have 
as much distance between the hills or rows as in areas 
more favorable to large growth. Especially in the 
northern portions of the semi-arid belt, the habit of 
growth in corn is more or less dwarfish relatively. The 



278 



DRY LAND FARMING 



Openings into the tubes not wanted may be closed by 
covering them with a sack or some such material. 

Corn may usually be planted to the depth of, say, 
2 to 3 inches. With ample moisture in the soil the shal- 
lower planting would seem to be preferable. But to in- 
sure germination, there are instances in which the plant- 
ing would be even deeper than 3 inches. The more 




THE SURFACE CULTIVATOR. 
Courtesy Deere & Webber Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 

light and porous the soil, the deeper may be the planting 
of the seed. 

The amount of seed to plant will vary: (1) with the 
kind of corn ; (2) the use that is to be made of the crop, 
and (3) the normal amount of the precipitation. The 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 279 

small-growing varieties of corn may be planted more 
closely than those that are larger. As corn in northerly 
areas is more dwarfish in its habits of growth than corn 
grown southward, it may be planted more closely. But 
such planting can only be carried so far, in areas where 
moisture may be deficient, or it will be adverse to 
growth in the corn. When corn is grown mainly 
for the fodder the planting may be thicker than when 
grown mainly for the grain. Usually it should not be 
grown so thickly, however, as to prevent the growth of 
nubbins on the stalks. Experience can alone determine 
this in each locality. In ver}^ dry areas it may be neces- 
sary to plant the seed so distant as to preclude the possi- 
bility of securing large yields. With a rainfall of, say, 
15 inches, the aim should be to have not fewer than 4 
stalks in a hill, and when planted in drills for fodder, the 
aim should be to have from 4 to 8 inches between the 
plants. 

The amount of seed called for will also be influenced 
by the size of the seed. For hill planting less than one 
peck will usually sufiice for an acre, and in many in- 
stances considerably less. For drill planting as much as 
two pecks of the large varieties with large kernels may be 
called for. 

In dry areas many growers favor planting corn by 
the method known as listing. Furrows are opened with 
a plow called a lister and the seed is planted in the 
bottom of the furrow. in rows or in hills. The chief 
advantage claimed for the system is that it starts the 
corn farther from the surface than when planted in the 
ordinary way, and that in consequence it roots in a more 
moist soil. The labor involved in preparing the soil is 
also less. The cultivation of the ground is usually all 
given after the corn has begun to grow. Under some con- 
ditions better crops may be grown thus than in the ordi- 
nary way. The chief objection to the system is, that 



280 DRY LAND FARMING 

should heavy rain fall soon after the corn is planted, 
and this does occur occasionally, it may wash out some 
of the seed and bury more of it. There is the further 
objection that evaporation for a time at least will take 
place from a larger surface than would occur in level 
planting. If the land has been carefully plowed the 
previous autumn, the advantage to be gained from list- 
ing is at least problematical. 

Care of the crop. — In nearly all instances the plan is 
to be commended which harrows corn in dry areas once 
or twice before it is up. If but one harrowing is given, 
it ought to be given usually just when the points of the 
corn plants are ready to appear. If two harrowings are 
given, the first should occur about a week after planting 
the corn under normal conditions of weather. In both 
instances the teeth of the harrow should be given a far 
enough backward slant so as not to injure the sprouted 
corn. Myriads of weeds just starting into life will thus 
be destroyed. Subsequent to the appearance of the 
corn plants, one or two harrowings will be helpful, but 
when giving them care should be taken not to bury the 
corn plants, which is much liable to occur if the crop is 
harrowed when one to two inches high. In many in- 
stances the weeder judiciously used will do the work 
better than the harrow. Neither the harrow nor the 
weeder should be used on ground unduly moist, or when 
the corn plants are wet with dew or rain. The grower is 
in the best position to determine when and to what ex- 
tent harrowing should be done. 

The cultivator should follow close upon ceasing to 
use the harrow. A cultivator that will take in two or 
three rows should be used where large areas are to be 
cultivated. The objects sought from cultivating are: 
first, to destroy weeds, and, second, to prevent the escape 
of soil moisture. Ordinarily such cultivation should be 
level and shallow lest the corn roots should be broken 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 281 



that run near the surface, but should a crust form below 
the dust mulch, it ought to be broken up by deeper culti- 
vation. Usually cultivation does not continue longer 
than the season of tasseling in the corn, but in dry 
weather it may pay well to continue it longer. The in- 
terval between the cultivations must be determined in 
a great measure by the grower on clean land. No advan- 




DRY LAND FODDER CORN, GROWN NEAR SHERWOOD, N. DAKOTA. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 

tage can result from cultivating when soil moisture is not 
escaping unduly. It is seldom necessary to cultivate 
more frequently than, say, each 10 to 14 days. In dry 
areas late cultivation may have an important bearing on 
the crop that follows, because of the moisture which it 
may save to the soil. 

When corn is listed it is usually advantageous to 
use on the crop, during the growth period, the harrow, 



282 DRY LAND FARMING 

the weeder and the cultivator, and in the order named. 
The harrow attacks weeds that may be starting and 
gradually works soil into the furrows around the corn, 
which in time are filled. The weeder may be used later. 
The cultivating is much the same as for other corn. 

Harvesting. — Corn may be harvested in semi-arid 
areas : (1) by snapping ofif the ears ; (2) by cutting, shock- 
ing, and then husking; (3) by cutting and curing for 
feeding without husking, that is, by feeding in the 
bundle; (4) by cutting and curing in the silo; (5) by al- 
lowing swine to consume the ears from the uncut stalks, 
and (6) by grazing it ofif with sheep when mature. 

The snapping ofif of the ears by hand may best take 
place when some dwarfish kind of corn has been grown 
on ground to be planted to winter wheat, the wheat being 
drilled in among the stalks that are to furnish protection 
for it in the winter season. The dwarfish nature of the 
growth may interfere with harvesting the ears otherwise 
than by hand in the absence of sheep and swine. In dry 
areas the grazing of stalks from which the ears have 
been removed can scarcely be said to be profitable. They 
become so dry and brittle that they rank low in palata- 
bility. 

When the corn is large enough to cut with the bind- 
er, the ears may be husked in the ordinary way or with 
the aid of the corn shredder. In northern areas it may 
not be easy to secure enough dryness in the stalks to 
make it easily practicable to preserve them in the shred- 
ded form. But this will not apply to corn in southern 
areas of the dry belt. 

In dry areas corn will more commonly be cut with 
the corn harvester, cured in the shock and fed in the 
bundle from the shock or from the stack. The great 
bulk of the corn crop in those areas will be harvested 
and fed in this way. Where the snowfall is very light, it 
may answer quite well to draw and feed the corn from 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 283 




DRY LAND CORN, ROSEBUD COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 



284 DRY LAND FARMING 

large shocks made late in the season by putting a num- 
ber of small ones together. Where the snowfall is con- 
siderable the corn should be drawn and stacked in very 
narrow stacks on the approach of winter. They may 
contain but two lengths of sheaves with the heads lap- 
ping the middle. 

In areas where corn possessed of considerable bulk 
is grown it may be cured in the silo if so desired. It 
should then be cut when beginning to glaze and should be 
run through a cutting box with blower attached to carry 
it into the silo. Where the bulk obtained from the variet}' 
grown is small, it will not pay to harvest corn thus. 

When some kind of corn has been grown with a 
view to sow wheat in it, in the early autumn, it may be 
effectively harvested with swine. The labor of harvesting 
is thus so simplified that large areas may be grown in 
this way. The swine may begin such harvesting as soon 
as the ears have reached the roasting stage. 

When harvested with sheep or lambs, the grazing 
may begin at a similar stage in the growth of the corn. 
Care must be exercised at the first in turning in both the 
sheep and the swine, lest they should eat to their injury. 
This method of harvesting corn vyould seem to be the 
most economical that can be devised, as nothing virtu- 
ally is wasted save a small portion of the base of the 
stalk. Such grazing also leaves the land in good condi- 
tion for the grain crop that follows. It is specially help- 
ful to lands so light as to blow. The treading firms 
them and the stubs of the stalks to some extent check 
the force of the winds. 

The yields of the grain will depend much on the 
variety. The small kinds, as the Squaw, should furnish 
20 to 35 bushels per acre. Larger kinds may furnish 
40 to 50 when well grown. Maximum yields will seldom 
exceed 75 bushels. The yields of green fodder may run 
all the way from, say, 5 to 15 tons per acre with an 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 385 

average of, say, about 8 tons. This would mean an aver- 
age of about 2 tons in the cured form. Of course un- 
der irrigation in the warmer valleys, enormous crops 
may be grown. 

GROWING SORGHUMS 

The sorghums may be classified as sweet and non- 
sweet, that is as saccharine and non-saccharine. The 
saccharine sorghums include several varieties. The 
distinction between these relates more especially to 
growth characteristics and more particularly to such of 
these as relate to maturity. The saccharine sorghums are 
of the same class, but the non-saccharine are of sev- 
eral classes. The more important of these for the semi- 
arid country are Milo maize of the class known as Dhu- 
oras, or, as sometimes written, Durras, and Kafir corn. 
These are of several varieties. The sweet sorghums 
are of tall growth, and usually sustain a dark colored 
panicle somewhat spreading in character. The sweet 
character of the fodder makes it much relished by live 
stock. 

Milo maize is forging to the front as one of the 
most valuable food plants southward in the semi-arid 
region, hence it is worthy of more than a passing notice. 
This plant, at one time very tall, is now so dwarfed 
that the standard sorts average about 4^ feet in height, 
and the dwarf sorts about 3^ feet. The advantage from 
such modification in the handling of the crop will be 
readily apparent. The heads of Milo maize are relatively 
large and compact. AVhen the stand is thin, the heads be- 
come so large that they turn down by their own weight, 
otherwise they stand erect. The stalks are stout and 
short jointed. The roots fill the soil near the surface. 
When moisture is lacking, as in the case of sorghum, the 
plants stop growing until rains come again. The Durras 
are valuable as both fodder and grain plants, but for the 



286 DRY LAND FARMING 

latter use they are relatively much more valuable than 
lor the former. As a food for horses, cattle, sheep, swine 
and poultry the grain from Milo maize is nearly as valu- 
able as the food from corn. It may be grown successfully 
save on the high elevations from the northern border of 
Colorado southward. 

The K^afir corns are less tall and more stocky than 
the sweet sorghums. They sustain erect, compact and 
stubby heads. They are more succulent in the stem and 
leafy in the growth than Milo maize, and in drought 
periods they retain their greenness for a longer period 
than the Milo maize plants, hence they are somewhat 
superior to these for fodder uses. 

The saccharine sorghums are better adapted to 
northerly areas of the dry belt than the other sorghums 
Above the parallel of 45 they do less well than corn, and 
below 40 less well than the non-saccharine sorghums. 
The Dhuoras may be successfully grown as far north 
as, say, 41, on the lower altitudes, and on elevations even 
higher than 4,000 feet in southern Colorado. Kafir corn 
calls for somewhat warmer seasons and requires more 
time in which to mature growth. They are all drought- 
resistant, and probably in the following order: Kafir 
corn, Milo maize, sorghum. Each of these may cease to 
grow for a time and may subsequently continue growth 
when rain has added sufficiently to the moisture, but 
Kafir corn is best able to endure long periods of drought 
and to recover from the same. The seeds of all of these 
are low in germinating power, and the plants grow but 
slowly at the first. They should not be planted until 
both soil and season are reasonably warm. 

Other sorghums may be grown, as, for instance, 
Jerusalem corn, rice corn, broom corn, and Kaoling. The 
latter is a Chinese grain sorghum, characterized by early 
maturing qualities. Shallu is a sorghum introduced by 
the Louisiana experiment station about 1890. In certain 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 287 

quarters it has been greatly over-rated. None of the 
sorghums have been found equal in all-round adapta- 
bility to sweet sorghum, Milo maize and Kafir corn. 

Soils. — All the sorghums will grow well on the aver- 
age soils of the bench land country and also of the river 
valleys when irrigated. But all of these do much better 
on loam soils than on stiff clays and on light lands. The 
ability to grow them in good form on bench lands that 
will grow crops of grain need not for one moment be 
questioned. On alkali soils they will grow as well or 
better than most crops, but the degree of the alkali 
present will, of course, have an important bearing on the 
results. 

Place in the rotation. — The place in the rotation for 
the sorghums is not far different from the place assigned 
to corn (see p. 270). They grow especially well on sod 
land properly prepared. They follow grain crops rather 
than the bare-fallow, as in the case of corn ; they pre- 
pare the land for a grain crop when cultivation is given 
to them while they are growing. They draw more 
heavily on the moisture near the surface than corn, and 
this is so far adverse to the growth of grain where mois- 
ture is lacking. The natural order is, however, that 
grain crops will follow. Where the moisture is not too 
much lacking, they may alternate from year to year. 

Preparing the soil. — The seed bed for all the sor- 
ghums should be deep, fine and moist, loose above and 
firm below. A cloddy seed bed is specially objectionable, 
since it is unfavorable to germination, which is natur- 
ally somewhat weak in the seed of all the sorghums. 
To insure such a seed bed, it may be necessary to use a 
planker or a roller when preparing the ground. 

Stubble land should usually be plowed in the fall, 
and discing may frequently be helpful previous to the 
plowing. If the land is not plowed until the spring, it 
should be at once packed. The harrow should then keep 



288 



DRY LAND FARMING 



it fine and clean until the time for planting the seed. 
When sod land is plowed in the spring, the aim should 
be to make a loose seed bed without bringing up sods 
The roller, disc and harrow, judiciously used, will make 
such a seed bed. Good crops of these sorghums have 
been grown by turning the sod over carefully, rolling it 
down smoothly and then drilling in the seed, as is some- 
times done with the flax crop. 




DRY LAND SWEET SORGHUM, ROSEBUD COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 

Sowing. — The Early Amber, sometimes called the 
Minnesota Amber, is the best variety of sorghum to 
grow in northern areas. The Early Orange does better 
farther south, but it is later in maturing and not quite 
so hardy. The Coleman also ranks high among the 
sweet sorghums. There are two types of maize, the 
vellow and the white. The yellow varieties, of which 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 289 

there are several, are the more valuable. The extremes 
of height in the growth of these have been put at 2 to 12 
feet. Both extremes should be avoided. The extremely 
dwarf varieties do not yield sufficiently, and the ex- 
tremely tall varieties are illy adapted to very droughty 
conditions. The best variety of Kafir corn is the black 
hulled white. The stalks are leafy and the yields are 
relatively good. Red Kafir corn is also much grown, 
but to grow it calls for a longer season, and this also is 
true of the white variety. The aim should be to secure 
home-grown and acclimated seed in all instances. 

The time for planting the seed will, of course, vary 
with soil, season, latitude and altitude. The warmer the 
soil, the earlier the season, the higher the latitude, and 
the lower the altitude, the earlier may these crops be 
planted. But they should not be planted until all danger 
from frost is past and until the weather has become rea- 
sonably and regularly warm. The seeds are easily injured 
in their germinating power by being planted in the cold 
soil, and m cool weather. The time for planting is from 
two to three weeks later than would be suitable for corn 
(see p. 274). 

When the sorghums are grown mainly for seed, un- 
der very dry conditions, they may be best grown in hills, 
and may be planted with the hand-planter or the check- 
rower used in planting corn. For hand-planting the 
ground should first be marked out in squares 3^ feet 
distant. When thus planted, the cultivation given may 
be more thorough than if the seed were planted in rows. 
When grown mainly for fodder, the aim should be to 
grow the crop in rows and usually to plant the same 
with the grain drill. The rows should be about 3^2 feet 
distant. Broadcast planting may answer where the rain- 
fall is 20 inches, but it is seldom satisfactory when it is 
15 inches or less. 



290 DRY LAND FARMING 

The seed should seldom be buried more than 2 inches, 
but in some instances it may be necessary to plant it 
more deeply in order to reach moisture. It is slow to 
germinate, and this fact makes it possible to use the har- 
row with considerable freedom before the plants ap- 
pear. This could not be done where the seed had been 
broadcasted without destroying many of the plants. 

The amount of seed to plant will vary from, say, 3 
to 4 quarts per acre to 1^ bushels. The latter amount 
can only be used when the crop is grown as grain hay 
is grown, and in areas with a rainfall approximating or 
exceeding 20 inches per annum. The amount of seed 
used should be carefully adjusted to the amount of mois- 
ture that is in the soil and that may be expected to fall 
under normal conditions. From, say, 2 to 3 stalks should 
be the minimum number in the hills, and in the rows 
the plants may be from, say, 3 to 12 inches distant. 

Care of the crop. — The harrow or weeder should be 
used on the crop once or twice before the plants appear. 
If used the second time it should be just before the plants 
appear. Thorough and careful harrowing at such a time 
may preclude the necessity for further harrowing until 
cultivation begins, but there are instances when the har- 
row or the weeder may be used with profit subsequently, 
but not usually until the plants have reached the height 
of, say, 3 to 4 inches. The cultivation called for is about 
the same as that which will best meet the needs of the 
corn crop (see p. 280). 

Harvesting. — Small areas of the sorghums may be 
harvested by hand and put up in shocks like corn. Large 
areas may be cut with the corn harvester, and, under 
some conditions, with the grain binder. The mower is 
frequently used when the crop is grown on the broad- 
cast plan. When thus cut, the sorghum is put up in 
large cocks, and in these it remains until it is fed. The 
sorghums are much liable to heat and mold in the stack. 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 291 

The grain is sometimes removed by cutting or snapping 
off the heads by hand, at other times by using the header, 
and yet again by certain forms of threshing. Home 
supplies of seed may be secured by removing choice 
heads and suspending them beneath a roof until the 
season for planting draws near. 

The yields of fodder are somewhat greater than those 
of corn, as their adaptation to dry conditions is higher. 
In the dry form, they will average from, say, 2 to 3 
tons per acre. The yields of grain vary greatly with ^"he 
season, but these also are higher than those produced 
by corn under similar conditions of growth. Milo maize 
produces more grain than the other sorghums. Under 
favorable conditions of growth, an average of 40 bushels 
per acre has frequently been obtained. 

GROWING POTATOES 

The potato crop is one of the surest for dry land 
conditions. There are instances in which it has been 
grown with reasonable success for many successive years 
where the annual precipitation is not more than 12 
inches. When grown under dry conditions, the potatoes 
are of higher quality than when grown under irrigation. 
When grown under irrigation, immense yields may be 
obtained from judicious culture, but the tubers are more 
watery, and they soon become less valuable for seed than 
those grown without irrigation, hence the demand for 
such potatoes is likely to continue good. The best cli- 
matic conditions for potatoes are found in the northerly 
areas of the semi-arid belt and on the higher elevations 
southward. They do not flourish so well where the 
climate is hot. 

Soils. — Sandy loams furnish the best- soils for po- 
tatoes, but good crops may be obtained from any rea- 
sonably good loam soil. Stiff clays are objectionable, as 
much labor is involved in order to bring them into a good 



292 DRY LAND FARMING 

condition of tilth. The potatoes also grow more slowly 
in such soils, and extra labor is involved in harvesting 
the crop. 

Place in the rotation. — Under dry conditions, the best 
crops of potatoes may be obtained from sod or other 
land managed on the summer-fallowing plan. But such 
land can seldom be spared for potatoes. The best crops 
may probably be obtained by breaking sod and man- 
aging it as summer-fallow the season of breaking. On 
this the crop is planted the following spring, in some 
instances without further plowing, and in others after 
it has been deeply plowed. On older land it is frequently 
made to follow alfalfa which has occupied the ground 
for a limited number of years. More commonly, how- 
ever, the crop is grown on stubble land, manured or un- 
manured. On new land two good crops may be grown 
in succession, in the absence of disease, but ordinarily 
the potato crop should be followed by a grain crop or by 
a seeding to alfalfa, as when well cared for it leaves the 
land in excellent condition for these. 

Preparing the soil. — On new breaking, or even on 
other sod land, reasonably good crops of potatoes have 
been grown by simply breaking shallow and dropping 
the sets in, say, every third furrow and following with 
the roller and harrow, and without any cultivation sub- 
sequently. One strong objection to this method is the 
difficulty found in harvesting the crop. But the home- 
steader who is beginning his v^ork may find it to answer 
his needs. The better plan is to plow the sod to a depth 
of 6 inches or more, to make a good seed bed on it, and to 
plant the crop in the same, so that suitable cultivation 
may follow. It is important that the sods shall be well 
buried so that they will not interfere with the subse- 
quent cultivation. When grown on alfalfa land, it is 
frequently broken in the spring after the alfalfa has be- 
gun to grow. When grown on stubble land, the aim 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 293 

should be to plow in the fall, and deeply. Where the 
conditions do not favor such plowing, the work may be 
done in the spring. Potatoes want a deep seed bed. 
Firming the lower seed bed is not so important for po- 
tatoes as for most other crops. 

Planting. — Since, in the semi-arid belt, the weather is 
usually very dry after August 1st, the early varieties 
should be preferred, other things being equal. The most 
popular potato at present in much of the dry area is 
the Early Ohio, and it is probably the most profitable. 
The Burbank holds a prominent place among the later 
varieties. Other varieties that have been more or less 
grown are the Rural New Yorker, the Mammoth Pearl 
and the North Pole. While the time for planting po- 
tatoes will, of course, vary with latitude and altitude, the 
aim should be to plant the crop at as early a date as will 
be admissible because of the presence or absence of frosts. 
This crop is easily injured by frost at all stages of its 
growth. But the nipping of the young plants does not 
mean their destruction ; it does mean, however, a consid- 
erably retarded growth. It is important to give the plants 
an early start in order that they may get all the benefit 
possible from the rains before they cease to fall for the 
season. The time for planting potatoes may begin about 
the time when corn planting usually beings (see p. 274), 
and it may be continued even later than would be suit- 
able for corn, as, in some varieties at least, the potatoes 
will mature in a shorter time than corn. In areas where 
the winters are mild, potatoes are planted in the autumn, 
putting the uncut sets down in the soil below the lower 
frost line. 

The crop may be planted in hills or in drills. The 
latter method is most commonly adopted when large 
quantities are grown, as the planting is then done by the 
aid of the potato planter. The hills are usually made 
from 3 to 3% feet distant, and similar distances should 



294 



DRY LAND FARMING 



be allowed between the rows. The seed chosen may con- 
sist, preferably, of medium-sized and shapely potatoes, 
planted singly and uncut when in hills or even in drills. 
More commonly, however, the seed is cut in large rather 
than in small pieces. 

Deep planting is preferable to that which is shallow. 
In some soils, as those that are light, the aim is to put 
them in as deeply as 6 inches. Usually, however, they 




DRY LAND POTATOES, CHOTEAU COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 



may be put down to the depth of 4 to 5 inches. In the 
absence of a planter, the seed is dropped by hand in fur- 
rows opened by the plow, and covered by running the 
harrow over the ground. The distance between the sets 
in the rows is usually about 18 inches, but they may be 
planted farther apart, if the lack of moisture should make 
such planting advisable. 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 295 



The amount of seed called for will vary much with 
the size of the tubers and with the distance between the 
rows and sets, T5ut 10 to 12 bushels will usually suffice 
for an acre. 

Care of the crop. — In some soils the plan is good 
which uses the harrow on the planted crop from two to 
three or four times between the time of planting and the 




DRYLAND POTATOES.^NEAR KALISPELL, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 

season when cultivation should begin, that is, when the 
plants are from 4 to 6 inches high. In other instances the 
weeder will give better results after the plants have 
reached the surface. The first cultivation given may 
usually be deep, especially if the plants are yet not far 
above the ground, but the cultivator so used should leave 
the surface of the ground level. The soil is thus left 
loose in which the potatoes may feed freely. The sub- 
sequent cultivations should be shallow, and they may be 



296 DRY LAND FARMING 

continued even after the potatoes have reached the blos- 
soming stage. Should the Colorado beetle give trouble, 
spraying with Paris green will be found effective, using 
a solution of 1 pound of Paris green to 20 gallons of 
water. 

Harvesting. — The crop is ready to harvest when the 
tops die, but in dry areas no harm will usually follow if 
the tubers are not dug until late in the season, as injury 
from rain is seldom to be feared, which, of course, is not 
true of humid regions. Thus undisturbed, the tubers 
will keep nicely until they are wanted, or until the sea- 
son arrives when the hazard is incurred that they may 
be injured by the freezing of the ground. The crop is 
dug: (1) by hand, using a fork with closely spaced tines; 
(2) by turning the tubers out with the plow and, after 
picking those that are visible, following with the harrow 
to uncover others; (3) with the potato digger, which is 
indispensable when large areas are to be dug. The tubers 
may be kept in pits or in cellars, but always beyond the 
reach of frost. The potatoes in the pits are placed in 
oblong piles rising up in the form of a ridge roof. They 
are then covered with a layer of straw, and over this one 
or more layers of earth, according to the needs of the 
climate. Along the ridge, suitable openings should be 
left for ventilation. Potatoes in cellars should be kept 
cool. 

GROWING FIELD BEANS 

This class includes two distinct classes. These are 
the common field bean and the soy bean. Each of these 
includes many varieties. The common field bean may 
be grown over much of the semi-arid area, as it grows 
on a great variety of soils and under very dry conditions. 
Moreover, the weather for harvesting the crop in dry 
areas is almost perfect. The common field bean may 
be grown with safety in a normal season as far north as 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 297 

the Canadian boundary, if not, indeed, farther, and at ele- 
vations as high as 3,000 feet, if not, indeed, higher. The 
soy bean, however, may not be grown with much suc- 
cess north of the parallel of, say, 43, although in some 
varieties, as the New Era, it may be matured as far 
north as 45. 

Soils. — Both classes of beans may be grown on a 
wide range of soils. The favorite soils for both, however, 
are loams, especially loams that have a considerable con- 
tent of sand. While these crops will grow and produce 
on soils relatively low in fertility, they respond readily 
to fertilization. The volcanic ash soils of the west are 
well adapted to these crops. They may be grown on 
stifif clays, but not so well as on a better class of soils. 
There is no room for them on alkali lands. 

Place in the rotation. — Both classes of beans are 
grown under cultivation and both are soil enrichers. 
Both may, therefore, be grown as cleaning and reno- 
vating crops. Both come with peculiar propriety after 
grain crops, and with equal propriety they may be fol- 
lowed by grain crops. They grow well on sod land in 
a proper condition of preparation. The aim should be 
not to plant them after other cultivated crops or on sum- 
mer-fallow, as such land is wanted for the growth of 
cereals. 

Preparing the soil. — The preparation of the land for 
beans is not far dififerent from the preparation suitable 
for corn (see p. 168). As the crop is not usually planted 
so early as corn, a correspondingly longer time is given 
for cleaning the land by the aid of the harrow prior to 
the planting of the crop. 

Planting. — The most suitable varieties of the com- 
mon bean include the navy, the Mexican and the white 
wax. The navy is the most popular by far of the field 
varieties, especially the small navy. In California and 
some of the other states southward, the lima varieties 



298 DRY LAND FARMING 

are grown. On and contiguous to the parallel of 45, the 
early dwarf varieties of the soy bean may be planted. 
Between the parallels 38 and 45, the medium dwarf, in- 
cluding such varieties as the early white, will be found 
suitable, also the medium early green, a variety that has 
found favor in certain sections of New England. Farther 
southward the standard varieties are more suitable. 
These include the medium late green and the medium late 
black. It is unsafe to plant either class of the two classes 
before the danger from spring frosts is past. When frozen 
down, the plants do not recover satisfactorily, as in the 
case of corn. This will mean that near the Canadian 
border planting will not be safe before about June 1st. 
The season for planting will continually advance as the 
north is receded from, save in certain areas of high alti- 
tude. The soy varieties should not be planted until both 
soil and weather have become reasonably warm. 

Both classes may be planted in hills or in rows, but 
the latter method is the one that is most commonly 
adopted. The work may be done with the corn planter 
or with the grain drill. The distance between the rows 
and plants in the row will vary with the size of the 
plants of the particular variety. More commonly the 
rows are made 36 inches apart for the small varieties of 
both classes of beans. For some varieties of the soy 
beans the distance should be greater. The space between 
the plants will vary as the plants are large or small. 

The depth to plant in average soils is from 2 to 2^^ 
inches, but in very loose soils or in those without mois- 
ture near the surface, it may be necessary to plant more 
deeply. 

The amount of seed called for will vary much with 
the size of the seed. Usually from 2 to 3 pecks will suf- 
fice per acre, and in very dry conditions a less quantity 
will answer. 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 299 

Care of the crop. — The crop will usually profit much 
from the careful stirring of the surface soil with the har- 
row or the weeder, before it reaches the surface. Subse- 
quently, if harrowing is given, it should be done with 
great care, and usually only when the plants are too 
thick, so that if they are thinned somewhat by the process 
the crop will not suffer. After the plants appear, the 
cultivator is, all in all, the best implement to use. It 
should be run at first quite near to the line of the row. 
As with corn, the cultivations should be frequent and con- 
tinued until the beans have reached the flowering stage. 
This work should never be done when the plants are 
wet with dew or rain. Some hand hoeing may be neces- 
sary to remove weeds that may start in the line of the 
row. 

Harvesting. — The crop may be harvested by hand 
pulling, should the area grown be small. For large areas 
a bean puller, or, as it is sometimes called, a bean lifter, 
should be used. This implement cuts off the beans a 
short distance below the surface of the ground. They 
are then lifted by the aid of a fork and placed in rows 
or piles to dry. From these they may be stacked, if quite 
dry, and threshed later with a machine specially de- 
signed for such work. Soy beans are in some instances 
harvested by swine. For such a use they have high 
adaptation. In dry areas this may be done with little or 
no loss of grain, but, of course, the straw is spoiled for 
feeding. 

The yields of the common bean average not less than 
20 bushels per acre. The average yields from soy beans 
are probably not any more, but in some instances the 
large and late varieties give yields that are much larger. 

GROWING FIELD ROOTS 

The field roots that may be grown in the semi-arid 
areas include carrots, mangels, sugar beets, turnips, ruta- 



300 



DRY LAND FARMING 



bagas and kohlrabi. Carrots are mentioned first because 
of their pre-eminent adaptation to western soils, and 
especially to those of the volcanic ash type. Kohlrabi is 
a plant which produces what may be termed a bulb above 
the ground, in contrast to the turnip, which produces the 
same chiefly below the surface. Carrots and mangels 
will succeed under a wider range of climatic conditions 




DRY LAND MANGELS, ^lATHEAD COUNTY, MONTANA. 

Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 

than the other crops named, as they they may not only 
be grown in areas that are relatively cool, but they may 
also be grown with success where the climatic conditions 
would be too warm for the successful growth of ruta- 
bagas and kohlrabi. The latter, therefore, have relatively 
better adaptation for the higher altitudes than the former. 
While field roots may be grown successfully under 
dry conditions, it can scarcely be said with truth that 
they are as sure a crop as cereals. One handicap, some 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 301 

seasons, is the lack of moisture to insure germination at 
the proper season, as in most instances they call for plant- 
ing that is relatively shallow. Quite frequently there is 
also a lack of ample moisture during the latter part of 
the growing season to produce a maximum growth. 
Sugar beets, especially, may not produce yields that may 
be desired from this cause, hence the wisdom of growing 
them under a very light normal rainfall is to be ques- 
tioned, notwithstanding the high sugar content which 
they may possess. 

Soils. — The best soils for all kinds of field roots are 
sandy loams underlaid witK subsoils of moderately por- 
ous texture. Soils with a considerable admixture of sand 
in the clay element which they contain have especial 
adaptation to the needs of carrots, turnips and rutabagas. 
Mangels and sugar beets will grow more successfully in 
clay soils when once started, but none of these crops 
should be planted on stiff clays. It is difficult to properly 
germinate them on such soils. Nor is it easy to keep 
them in a proper condition of tilth. The silty soils of 
the river basins are usually too porous for the proper 
retention of the needed moisture for these crops. Gumbo 
soils which carry considerable quantities of alkali may 
be made to produce enormous crops of mangels and sugar 
beets when irrigated, but when not irrigated it is not 
possible so to manage them as to secure the requisite 
tilth for these crops under normal conditions. Dry 
gravels and shallow soils are wholly unsuited to the 
growth of these crops. 

Place in the rotation. — Normally the place for these 
crops is after small grain, not only because such a suc- 
cession furnishes the best conditions under which they 
may be grown, but because when grown thus the land is 
being prepared for a crop of small grain to follow. Land 
that has been summer-fallowed will be more certainly 
followed by a good crop than stubble land ; hence, under 



302 DRY LAND FARMING 

very dry conditions it may be advisable to grow them 
thus, not only to insure a crop, but also to increase the 
moisture content in the soil. Land thus managed has 
virtually the benefit of summer tillage for two successive 
years. The moisture thus stored in the soil will render 
the grain crop that follows almost an assured certainty. 
These crops may, in some instances, be grown success- 
fully on alfalfa sod properly prepared. 

Preparing the soil. — When root crops follow the 
summer-fallow it is seldom necessary to plow the land 
for them in the spring. In most instances deep discing 
will suffice, following with the harrow. When these crops 
follow the small cereals the soil may be prepared as out- 
lined for the planting of corn (see p. 168). If the planting 
of the crop is deferred until a late period, say early June, 
the harrow should be freely used in the interval follow- 
ing the opening of spring. When these crops follow 
alfalfa, the land should be deeply plowed. This may not 
be practicable in the autumn. On land thus prepared the 
alfalfa roots may give trouble in cultivating the soil. 
This trouble may be greatly lessened by plowing the 
land to half the depth in the autumn and again to full 
depth in the spring. 

Sowing. — The Mastodon carrot is one of the best 
varieties to grow, but Danvers half long is also good, hav- 
ing the special merit of being easily pulled. The Man- 
moth long red mangel and the Golden Tankard are 
among the most suitable varieties of this species. Any 
of the standard varieties of sugar beets, as, for instance. 
Vilmorin's Improved, may be grown. The old stand-by, 
the Purple Top Swede, still ranks high among the 
standard sorts of rutabagas, and the Purple Top Strap 
Leaf among the turnips. Carrots should be sown as soon 
as the ground is in proper condition to work in the spring. 
Mangels and sugar beets should not be sown until 2 or 
3 weeks later, as they will succumb to frost. The best 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 303 

quality, but perhaps not the largest quantity, of ruta- 
bagas, turnips and kohlrabi will be obtained from seed 
sown as late as May in northern areas. 

In small areas the hand planter may be used in sow- 
ing any of these. In large areas the planter used in sow- 
ing sugar beets will best answer the purpose. But, with 
careful driving, the grain drill, or at least some grain 
drills, will sow any of these. When sowing carrots, 




■ III 1 1 i i i—m 11 t I wiiiniiiiiiwii | ii 1 1 i n ii i 



DRY LAND CARROTS, FLATHEAD COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 

mangels or sugar beets, it may be necessary to mix the 
seed with some substance, as dry earth, to prevent the 
same from feeding too fast. When the drill has a grass 
seed attachment that carries the seed into the drill tubes, 
the seed of rutabagas, turnips and kohlrabi may be dis- 
tributed from this attachment. The openings into the 
grain tubes not in use must all be covered. These crops 
should not be sown in raised drills in the absence of irri- 



304 DRY LAND FARMING 

gation, as this would result in the loss of too much mois- 
ture. The distance between the rows should be such as 
to meet the conditions of cultivation. Having regard 
only to the needs of the plants, the rows between carrots 
may be as close as 30 inches, mangels 30 to 36 inches, 
sugar beets 20 inches, rutabagas, turnips and kohlrabi 30 
inches. The seeds of all these crops are preferably sown 
shallow, as shallow as 1 to 2 inches. Deeper planting 
will be more or less adverse to quick germination and 
also to strong germination, and yet it may be necessary 
to plant more deeply in order to insure germination. 
There is a marked advantage in having the soil pressed 
around the seed when it is planted, as is done by the 
press drill when it is used. CTcrmination is then both 
surer and firmer. 

From 2 to 3 pounds of seed should suffice per acre 
for carrots. It is usually considered wise to sow not 
fewer than 6 to 8 pounds of mangels and sugar beets to 
insure a full stand. From 1^ to 2i/2 pounds of ruta- 
bagas, turnips or kohlrabi should suffice. 

Rutabagas and turnips may be sown on new break- 
ing or on any overturned sod, more especially after it 
has been pressed down by the roller. The seed is broad- 
casted and is covered with the harrow. No cultivation is 
given subsequently. This method will, in most instances, 
bring a crop, even from" early spring plowing the year 
that the land is first broken. 

Care of the crop. — Whether the weeder or the har- 
row, or both, may be used on any of these crops after the 
seed has been sown will depend, first, on the depth to 
which the crop was sown, and, second, on the thickness 
of the stand secured. If the seed has been planted deeply, 
the weeder or a very light harrow may sometimes be run 
over the ground with profit after the seed has begun to 
germinate. After the seed is up, say, a couple of inches, 
one of these implements may sometimes be run over the 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 305 

ground. The weeder will usually answer best. It should 
be run across the rows. Quite a number of the plants 
may be torn out, but that will do no harm, providing 
enough are left in. A few days subsequently cultivation 
should begin, and even earlier if the harrow has not been 
used. It should be reasonably deep at first, should be 
repeated every 10 to 14 days when practicable until the 
leaves reach far out into the row, and subsequently at 
longer intervals until the leaves almost meet between 
the rows. The ground should, in all or nearly all in- 
stances, be left smooth after the cultivator. 

The aim should be to thin the plants before they 
get beyond the height of, say, 3 inches. This is usually 
done in the case of carrots, mangels and sugar beets, by 
striking a sharp hoe of suitable width across the line of 
the row, so that but few plants are left in the clumps 
unremoved. From these clumps all but one plant is re- 
moved by hand. In the case of rutabagas, turnips and 
kohlrabi, an expert workman will thin the plants almost 
entirely with the hoe. Carrots may be left from 4 to 6 
inches apart, mangels from 8 to 12, sugar beets 6 to 7, 
rutabagas, turnips and kohlrabi 8 to 12. It may be neces- 
sary to use hoe and hand labor a second time on these 
crops to remove plants not needed and stray weeds. 

Harvesting. — Mangels and sugar beets should be 
harvested before frost becomes severe, or it will so injure 
the exposed portions as to harm their keeping qualities. 
Carrots, rutabagas, turnips and kohlrabi may be left in 
the ground should this be desired, until the approach of 
the season when it will be locked by frost. 

Carrots and mangels are usually lifted by hand and 
thrown into piles for being topped after a furrow has 
been turned with a plow which has loosened them so that 
they lie at an angle rather than upright. Sugar beets may 
be raised in the same way, but frequently they are raised 
or rather loosened by an implement that runs beneath 



306 



DRY LAND FARMING. 



them. Carrots and mangels may be similarly loosened. 
They are then topped by hand and thrown in piles and 
covered with tops only until stored. Rutabagas and tur- 
nips are pulled by hand and thrown in heaps for topping, 
the same as carrots, described above. But in some in- 
stances they are topped with a hoe, pulled out of the 
ground with a heavy harrow, and are then lifted for 
storage. Kohlrabi may be harvested by first cutting off 




DRY LAND TURNIPS, FLATHEAD COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railw'ay Co. 



the part above the bulb and then the stalk below the 
bulb with a strong and sharp hoe. 

All these may be stored in ventilated cellars or in 
pits. When storing them in pits the same process ma}' 
be followed as in pitting potatoes (see p. 296). In some 
instances mangels are harvested by swine, the portions 
left in the ground being raised for them by the plow or 
by a hand implement. Rutabagas, turnips and kohlrabi 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 307 

may be harvested by sheep in mild areas. When har- 
vesting these crops by swine or sheep the waste is less 
when the crop can be fed off in sections, by the use of 
hurdles that are moved as occasion may call for such re- 
moval. In northerly areas, such feeding off of the crop 
is usually inadmissible. The yields will vary greatly, but 
each class of roots discussed should furnish several hun- 
dred bushels per acre. 

GROWING ARTICHOKES 

The artichoke, like the potato, is drought-resistant 
in a marked degree. It will grow under a wider range 
of conditions than the potato, and it is more persistent 
in its habits of growth. It would seem correct to say 
that it is the most hardy tuber grown. It is chiefly used' 
in providing food for swine, and especially for swine that 
are being carried through the winter. More commonly 
the swine harvest the crop where it grew; hence, in 
northern areas, where the land is locked by frost during 
much of the winter, the artichoke does not fulfill so im- 
portant a mission, relatively, as where the winters are 
mild. This plant is really a sunflower which produces 
tubers, and in the tubers lies its chief value, although 
the stalks are used to some extent in providing forage 
for certain kinds of live stock. The tubers are sometimes 
used as food for rnan. Instances are on record v/here 
this crop has been grown for successive years, and on 
the same land, from one planting, where the annual rain- 
fall was not more than 10 inches. 

Soils. — The soi4s that have highest adaptation for the 
growth of potatoes have also the highest adaptation for 
the growth of artichokes (see p. 291). It is of consider- 
able importance that the artichoke shall be grown on 
land possessed of much friability, as swine can dig in 
such land more readily than in stiff clays. 



;}0S DRY LAND FARMING 

Place in the rotation. — When artichokes are grown 
for but one year, the place in the rotation is virtually the 
same as for potatoes. But in some instances they are 
grown on the same land from year to year and without 
replanting. Moreover, the natural order for artichokes 
in the rotation is after a crop of small grain and also 
before a crop of the same. 

Preparing the land. — The preparation of the land is 
about the same as for potatoes (see p. 292). But since 
artichokes may be grown on the same land from year to 
year, it is a matter of considerable importance that the 
ground shall be deeply plowed and that the preparation 
shall be thorough where the crop is to be grown thus. 

Planting. — The common Jerusalem artichoke is the 
variety that is chiefly grown and that is best adapted to 
arid conditions. But under specially favorable conditions 
other varieties give larger returns. The time most com- 
monly chosen for planting is the early spring, but in 
many instances the sets are planted in the fall. When 
planted in the fall, it has been found better to plant 
whole, but when planted in the spring the tubers may 
be cut as in the case of potatoes. Fall planting usually 
takes place late in the season and spring planting quite 
early. The advantages from fall planting are : first, that 
the work of planting may be done at a time when work 
is not pressing, and, second, that the crop is ready to 
grow as soon as the season for growth comes. Though 
these tubers should be frozen in the soil, their vitality 
is not destroyed, and, unless in instances of extreme freez- 
ing, it is not in any sense injured. 

The tubers may be planted, as in the case of potatoes, 
by hand or with the planter, in hills 3 to 3^ feet distant 
or in rows of similar distance. They should be far enough 
apart to admit of easy cultivation with the cultivators 
ordinarily used. 



GROWING CULTIVATED CROPS IN DRY AREAS 309 

They should be planted to about the same depth as 
potatoes, that is from, say, 4 to 6 inches deep, accord- 
ing as the soil is light or heavy. The deeper planting 
should take place in the lighter soil. If planted deeply 
in heavy soil swine cannot harvest them so readily. The 
sets are placed from, say, 15 to 20 inches in the line 
of the row, and in hills 2 sets will usually suffice. 

The amount of seed called for is considerably greater 
in fall planting than in spring planting, since in the 
former the seed is not cut. Usually 10 to 12 bushels 
per acre will suffice for fall planting and about 40 per 
cent, less for spring planting. 

Care of the crop. — The artichoke plants will stand 
severe harrowing. The harrow or the weeder, or both, 
may be used upon the land several times from the time 
of planting until the crop has reached the height of, say, 
10 to 12 inches. The cultivator will then follow as long 
as it may be found practicable to continue the work. 

Should the crop be allowed to remain in the ground 
from year to year the excess of plants that may begin 
to grow in the spring should be removed by the culti- 
vator. These plants will come from tubers left in the soil 
from the gleaning of the swine referred to below. They 
should be left in rows, or, wdiat is even better, in squares 
wide enough to admit of cultivation between them with 
the usual implements. The care of this volunteer crop 
will be in outline much the same as has been submitted 
in the paragraph immediately preceding. 

Harvesting. — Artichokes may be harvested, after 
removing the tops, by a fork or by a potato digger. They 
may also be harvested by swineafter they have matured. 
This process may continue where the supply holds out 
until the following spring, when frost does not interfere 
with the gleaning, and when it will not interfere with 
the soil at such a time. In heavy soils the plow is used 
to bring the tubers to the surface as the swine may 
need them. Artichokes yield more freely than potatoes. 



CHAPTER XIII 

GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 

The legumes which probably rank highest in their 
adaptation to dry areas include alfalfa, the common 
clovers, sainfoin, vetches, cow peas and sweet clover, 
also the Canadian field pea, the common field bean and 
the soy bean. The three species last named have al- 
ready been discussed. Of these the mission of alfalfa 
will probably be found more important than that 
of all the others combined. The great value of 
legumes in dry areas lies first in the fact that nearly all 
of them have much power to grow under dry conditions ; 
second, in the enrichment which they bring to the soil ; 
third, in the humus which they bring to the same, and, 
fourth, in their relatively high value in furnishing food 
for live stock. 

GROWING ALFALFA 

Beyond all question alfalfa is to be the great hay 
crop of the semi-arid west. Without alfalfa the problem 
of furnishing hay for the farmer of this region would 
be very grave. With alfalfa it is not difficult. The 
view was very prevalent until recent years that alfalfa 
could not be grown successfully in the absence of irri- 
gating waters unless water was found not far below 
the surface of the ground. It is now known that where 
the soil and subsoil for alfalfa are suitable, it may be 
grown successfully where the water table is several 
hundred feet below the surface, providing the climatic 
conditions also are favorable to its growth. Where 
this beneficent plant can be grown, it will furnish hay 
for 4ive stock, bring enrichment and humus to the soil, 
tend in a very marked degree to prevent blowing in 
light soils, and prove a most effective subsoiler through 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 



311 



the influence which its roots exert upon the soil and sub- 
soil in their growth and decay. The value of this plant 
to the dry land farmer can scarcely be overestimated. It 
has been ascertained during recent years that it may be 



> 
> 



o ^ 

O trj 

f^ o 



< 

> 

H 
O 

pi 




grown successfully on average soils where the annual 
precipitation is not more than 10 to 12 inches in a year. 
Soils. — The best soils for alfalfa are loams, pro- 
nouncedly sandy in their composition, and underlaid 



312 DRY LAND FARMING 

with a reasonably porous sandy and clay loam subsoil. 
Such soils are frequently found in river basins, and 
when they are, and ground water is within a few feet 
of the surface, the conditions for alfalfa are all the more 
favorable. It should be remembered, however, that 
alfalfa will grow successfully on the average clay loam 
soil of the semi-arid west, with a moderately clay loam 
subsoil, though the water table should be hundreds of 
feet below the surface. Alfalfa will also grow reason- 
ably well on stiff clay soils, but on these it is more dif- 
ficult to get a stand than on sandy loam soils. In an 
average year it will do well even on gumbo soils, but 
on these it may be greatly lacking in a dry season. 
Alfalfa will not grow well on soils composed mainly of 
vegetable matter. It will not succeed in dry areas on 
light sands or on gravelly soils much lacking in an inter- 
mixture of cla}^ It will not succeed in lands which are 
subject to overflow for any considerable portion of the 
year, nor will it succeed on land strongly impregnated 
with alkali. Shallow soils, also, and those underlaid with 
hard-pan which comes within a foot or two of the sur- 
face are most unfavorable to the growth. 

Place in the rotation. — The normal place for alfalfa 
in dry areas is always virtually the same. This means 
that where the average rainfall does not exceed 15 inches 
the aim should be to sow alfalfa on summer-fallowed 
land or on land which has grown a cultivated crop the 
previous year. The reasons for such a rotation are found, 
first, in the fact that the land is or should be clean, and, 
second, in the fact that it should contain a relatively 
high moisture content. When the rainfall is more than 
15 inches, it is not so necessary that this rotation shall 
be rigidly adhered to. In new areas it may be grown on 
land newly broken, as a means of obtaining quickly a 
supply of hay, but with the distinct understanding that 
this is not the best method of growing it. The objec- 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 313 

tion to growing it after grain lies in the fact that such 
ground is more or less weedy, that it is frequently much 
lacking in moisture, and that in many instances it has 
not that completeness of fine and yet firm tilth that is 
favorable to the growth. It succeeds much better on 
land that has been broken for several years than on land 
that is absolutely new, under semi-arid conditions. 




DRY LAND ALFALFA, YELLOWSTONE COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 

Alfalfa may be followed by various crops. Promi- 
nent among these are such crops as revel in a plentiful 
supply of humus in the soil, including corn, the sor- 
ghums, potatoes, sugar beets and other field roots, as 
rape and millet, especially when these are planted in 
rows and cultivated. Grain crops of the small cereals 
are next in order. 



314 DRY LAND FARMING 

Preparing the land. — Ordinarily, when preparing the 
land for alfalfa, the plan is to be commended, at least in 
areas where the land is new, which begins the work one 
year before the seed is sown. The preparation consists 
in summer-fallowing the land, or in growing on it a cul- 
tivated crop to get the moisture well into the land. This 
is very important. The plan is also excellent which be- 
gins such preparation by applying about 10 loads, that is, 
about 10 tons of farmyard manure to the acre before 
the land is plowed for the summer-fallow or the culti- 
vated crop, because of the favorable influence which it 
exerts on soil inoculation (see p. 316). Preparing the 
land thus leaves it in a clean and moist condition at the 
close of the season. The following spring the disc, fol- 
lowed once by the harrow and again at intervals if neces- 
sary, should put the land in good condition for receiv- 
ing the seed. Such a seed bed should be moist, fine on 
the surface, and more or less firm below. When the 
land is plowed for the fallow or for the cultivated crop, 
it should be plowed deeply. Should the seed be sown 
on breaking, it should also be plowed deeply and well 
pulverized on the surface. 

Sowing. — In the areas of the dry belt that lie south- 
ward, hardihood in the plants with reference to standing 
cold in the different varieties does not call for serious 
consideration, but this is not true of the northern areas 
thereof. In the latter, preference should be given to seed 
that has been grown well northward, as in Montana or 
on similar parallels. Drough-resistant varieties are be- 
ing introduced, but none of these have up to the present 
time shown superiority in this respect which would 
justify supplanting the varieties commonly grown with 
them. 

Usually the aim should be to sow alfalfa seed as 
early as the danger from frost to the young plants ceases. 
This, in the northern areas of the dry belt, would be in 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 315 

late May or early June, and earlier in lower latitudes. 
Where the rainfall is reasonably copious in the autumn 
and winter, it may answer to sow the seed in the autumn. 
It may be wise in some instances to defer sowing for a 
time, to give opportunity for the more perfect cleaning 
of the land. 

The seed should be sown in dry areas with some 
kind of drill. Otherwise much of it may not sprout be- 
caijse of the shallowness of the covering given to the 
broadcasted seed. When sown with a drill, it may be 
put down to moisture, may be buried to a uniform depth, 
and, in some instances, may be profitably harrowed be- 
fore the plants have reached the surface and subse- 
quently. A grain drill that feeds the seed from an at- 
tachment into the grain tubes will put the seed into the 
ground in about the best way possible. For ordinary 
sowing all the tubes are used. Quite recently, however, 
the method of growing alfalfa for seed by planting it 
in rows far enough apart to admit of cultivation between 
them is being tried. The most suitable distance between 
the rows and also between the plants in the line of the 
row has not yet been fully determined, but it is believed 
that this method of growing alfalfa seed will be found 
profitable in wide areas of the semi-arid region. 

On heavy soils and with ample moisture, the aim 
should be to plant the seed shallow, that is, to a depth not 
much more than an inch. On light and open soils it may 
be put down 2 and 3 inches, in some instances, with 
positive benefit. 

Where irrigation is practised it is common to sow 15 
to 20 pounds of seed to the acre, that the hay product 
may be fine in its growth through the crowding of the 
plants. But in areas where the rainfall is about 15 
inches or less, more than 8 pounds of seed are seldom 
sown, and in many instances this amount is still further 
reduced to 5 or 6 pounds. 



316 DRY LAND FARMING 

Where the moisture is ample, the seed is frequently, 
though not in all instances, sown with a nurse crop. But 
in dry areas this should be done very seldom, if, indeed, 
at all. Where the plants are too numerous for the mois- 
ture supply, the root growth will not be so deep and 
strong as under other conditions, and the yields will be 
reduced in proportion. When growing this crop it is 
greatly important that the plants shall make a vigorous 
growth the first season. 

In some instances alfalfa will not grow well when 
the first attempts are made to grow it, even on soils that 
have the requisite physical and chemical conditions for 
growing the crop. The cause is found in the absence of 
the requisite bacteria in the soil for the successful growth 
of alfalfa. Where these are not present in the soil alfalfa 
cannot be grown with complete success. The absence of 
the bacteria in a season of normal rainfall may be known : 
(1) by the lack of growth in the plants, especially in the 
latter part of the summer; (2) by the pale color of the 
leaves, and (3) by the lack of production in the plants, 
even though they should survive the rigors of the winter. 

When it is apparent that the bacteria are lacking 
in the soil, the part of wisdom is to introduce them. 
This may be done: (1) by securing the culture known as 
nitragin and soaking the seed in it before sowing; (2) 
by securing, say, 200 pounds of earth, preferably from an 
old alfalfa field, and scattering it over each acre of land 
on which alfalfa is to be sown before or after the sowing 
of the seed ; (3) by the liberal application of farmyard 
manure at the outset on land that is to be sown to alfalfa. 
The first method is not always reliable, as the germs 
may have lost vitality before they are used. The second 
method is reliable, and the same may be said of the 
third, but the reasons therefor are not as yet well un- 
derstood. Happily such inoculation is not usually needed 
when alfalfa is sown on western soils. 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 



317 



Care of the crop. — In some instances, on some soils 
heavy rain falling on newly sown seed packs the ground 
to the extent of preventing the plants from reaching the 




surface. This crust should be broken, preferably by a 
weeder. In some instances it may be necessary to resow 
the crop. 



318 DRY LAND FARMING 

On some soils it will pay well to harrow the crop, 
but not usually until the plants reach the height of, say, 
3 to 5 inches. On other soils this may not be admissible. 
Where the harrow can be thus used, it aids in cleaning 
the land, and frequently it may used again, once or twice, 
at a later period. 

The crop should be clipped when, say, 8 to 10 inches 
high, by running the mower over it and set so high that it 
will not cut off the crowns of the plants. Should the 
tops of the plants show any indication of lack of mois- 
ture, by assuming a yellowish tint, the mower should 
be at once sent into the field. The clipping cuts off 
weeds that may be present, and it tends to strengthen 
the alfalfa plants by causing renewed growth in the 
roots. What is thus mown may usually be left to mulch 
the land. The plants should then be allowed to make a 
good growth, so that they may go through the winter in 
good condition. The top growth will tend to hold snow 
and to break the force of the wind. It should not be 
pastured the first season. 

After the plants have reached the age of two years, 
discing will be found profitable in the early spring, also 
carefully stirring the soil with an alfalfa renovator (see 
p. 154). The discing should be done in the early spring, 
also the stirring of the soil, as soon as either can be done 
without harm to the soil. The discing may be severe, 
but th'e discs should not be set at too much of an angle 
or they may cut the plants. After the discing the har- 
row should be run over the ground to smooth it. The 
renovator stirs the ground deeply and does not cut the 
plants or split the crowns. Such stirring of the soil 
helps to kill weeds and insect life, aerates the ground, 
conserves moisture and makes plant food available. 

Harvesting for hay. — For hay, alfalfa should be cut 
for swine just before any blooms open; for sheep, dairy 
and beef cows, just after the blooms begin to open, and 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 319 

for horses still later. It is raked as soon as the rake will 
readily do the work. It is drawn into small winrows 
and lifted from these onto the wagon when cured, or it 
is stacked by the aid of other machinery of modern con- 
struction, as the bull rake and stacker. In other in- 
stances the winrows are put up in small cocks to com- 
plete the curing. In dry areas the first cutting may 
sometimes be injured by rain, but this will seldom hap- 
pen with the second cutting. 

Harvesting for seed. — Dry land conditions frequently 
show high adaptation for the production of alfalfa seed. 
Excessive rankness in the growth of the plants and wet 
weather when the plants are in bloom are adverse to the 
growth of alfalfa seed. The same is true of plants that 
grow too thickly on the ground. The best seed crops are 
obtained from plants young and strong and growing well 
apart. Because of the influence which ample space has 
on the production of seed, the practise of growing seed 
in dry areas that is obtained from plants grown in rows 
and cultivated is meeting with much favor. This method 
of growing the seed, however, has not as yet been carried 
beyond the tentative stage, but much is expected from it. 

The following are among the indications of a prob- 
able shortage in the seed crop: (1) blooms not numer- 
ous, and light in color; (2) blooms that do not fertilize, 
but fall ofT from the plants ; (3) the production of only 
one or two weak and small pods in a flower truss. When 
these and some other indications that may be given are 
present, the crop should be cut for hay. In areas north 
of the latitude of Denver, the first cutting frequently 
furnishes the best seed crop, but this does not always 
follow. The crop should be cut for seed when a majority 
of the seeds have turned brown. The stems, notwith- 
standing, will still be green. If allowed to stand too 
long, there will be much loss through shattering of the 
pods, and this condition is intensified by rain. When 



320 



DRY LAND FARMING 



the seed crop is cultivated, the danger is present that 
there may be an excessive thickening of the crop from 
volunteer seed. The fertilization of alfalfa is partly ac- 
complished by bees and other insects, and partly through 
self-fertilization, a property that inheres in the plants. 

More commonly the seed is harvested by using the 
self-rake machine. The aim should be to thresh the seed 
from the sheaves, a method which is seldom hindered 




DRY LAND ALFALFA, TWO YEARS OLD, HARNEY CO., OREGON. 
Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 



by rainfall, in areas where much alfalfa seed is produced. 
When thus threshed, it should be stacked, and much care 
should be exercised to have the crop sufficiently dry be- 
fore stacking, otherwise the seed may be injured by 
heating. 

The seed is threshed in best form by the clover 
huller, but it may also be threshed with the grain sepa- 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 321 

rator, but that method of threshing is more or less waste- 
ful of seed. The yields of seed vary. As many as 15 
to 18 bushels per acre have been obtained, but 4 to 5 
bushels are considered a good crop. 

' Good alfalfa seed is a bright golden yellow color, 
but it may have a slightly greenish tinge. It should be 
plump and free from shrivelled seed, and also from the 
gray-like seeds of dodder and other noxious weeds. Be- 
fore planting, it should always be tested as to its vitality. 

Duration of the crop. — The duration of the crop in 
semi-arid areas varies greatly with the conditions. It 
seldom fails from lack of moisture. Should it get weedy 
or grassy, it is usually wise to break up the crop. On the 
bench lands it has not yet been fully determined as to 
the time that alfalfa will continue to produce well, but 
it will last, in most instances, for several years. Where 
it is easily grown it may be broken up at the end of 3, 4 
or 5 years to improve the soil for other crops. 

Breaking alfalfa sod. — Alfalfa does not make a stiff 
sod, nevertheless it is very difficult to plow, because of 
the size of the roots. It is not easy to cut them all off 
with the plow and thus prevent future growth. To aid 
in this work, a share more or less notched on the cutting 
edge is sometimes used. In some instances the land is 
plowed shallow, and again more deeply, before the crop 
that follows is sown. 

MISCELLANEOUS FACTS 

1. The seed of alfalfa is sometimes mixed with the 
seed of sweet clover. The resemblance between them is 
so close that the presence of the clover seed can only be 
detected by the sense of smell. There is no way of sepa- 
rating these. 

2. When alfalfa fields have been broken up and 
sown to grain, the plants that have escaped the plow usu- 



322 DRY LAND FARMING 

ally become prolific producers of good seed. This is 
threshed with the grain and separated subsequently. 

3. Should a crop of alfalfa be injured by such in- 
fluences as drought, frost, hail or insects, when the 
growth is at all advanced, it should be at once cut, as it 
will make more growth subsequently, and of superior 
value, than if it were not so treated. 

4. The objections to pasturing alfalfa under dry 
conditions are: (1) that in some instances it may cause 
bloat in cattle and sheep ; (3) that in others it may un- 
duly pack the land; (3) it may prove fatal to plants late 
in the season in northern latitudes, and (4) it may tend 
to spread disease among the plants. When pastured 
with swine, which is one of the best uses to which it 
can be devoted, it will not live so long as when grown 
only for hay. 

5. The leaves of alfalfa that break ofif in the curing, 
the stubs of stems below the cut portions which later 
fall off, and the stubbles, in addition to the roots, bring 
much enrichment to the land and also much vegetable 
matter. 

GROWING CLOVERS 

The place for clovers in dry areas will never equal 
in importance the place that will be assigned to alfalfa. 
The part that clovers will play, relatively, in such areas 
will not be one of great significance, judged by the pres- 
ent indications. This arises from the fact that clover 
must have considerable moisture in order to make its 
growth profitable. Where the rainfall is 15 to 20 inches, 
clover may be grown with some success. This means 
that it may be grown in certain portions of the semi-arid 
country, especially those portions of the same that border 
on humid areas and certain other areas near the foothills 
of the mountains. On nearly all areas to which irrigat- 
ing waters are applied clover may be grown with great 
success. But where the rainfall is less than 15 inches per 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 323 

year, the wisdom of sowing much clover is certainly to 
be questioned. 

The kinds of clover that furnish food prized for live 
stock, and that may be sown with some success in cer- 
tain portions of the semi-arid belt are the common red, 
the mammoth, the Alsike and the small white. Far 
southward the Japan variety will probably be the most 
valuable variety to grow. Sweet clover (see p. 335) may 
also be grown for certain uses. 

Soils. — Clover will grow well on all soils that are 
suitable for alfalfa. It will also grow on soils that are 
much more shallow, as in none of its classes or varieties 
does it root so deeply. The Alsike variety is best adapted 
to low, damp soils. Clovers will grow well on soils very 
low in fertility. Japan clover is better adapted for such 
a condition than the other clovers. 

Place in the rotation. — The clovers follow naturally 
where grain crops have been grown for a longer or 
shorter term of years. The best place for clovers, viewed 
from the standpoint of securing a good stand of the clo- 
vers, is on land that has been summer-fallowed after a 
grain crop or after a crop that has been cultivated. Such 
land is clean and it usually contains sufficient moisture to 
insure a stand of the clover when it is sown. The clovers 
should be followed by corn, flax and the small grains. 
The best succession is probably corn followed by grain, 
but good crops of flax may usually be grown on clo- 
ver sod. 

Preparing the land. — The preparation of the land that 
is suitable for the small grains (see p. 218) is also suitable 
for clover. The seed bed that will grow these in best 
form is also the seed bed that will grow clovers in best 
form. A clean seed bed is important when these crops 
are sown in dry areas, and the summer-fallow and the 
cultivated crop which precede the small grains put the 
land in such a condition. 



324 DRY LAND FARMING 

Sowing. — The leading classes of clover, which also 
may be looked upon as varieties, have already been re- 
ferred to (see p. 323). To what is there said, it may be 
added that the most important of the clovers is the com- 
mon red, since, when moisture is present in ample sup- 
ply, it produces two cuttings in a year. The mammoth 
is of stronger growth and, therefore, may prove more 
satisfactory on light lands. The Alsike is pre-eminently 
adapted to low lying lands, but will grow well on higher 
lands, especially when these are strongly impregnated 
with lime. The small white, which is only adapted to 
pasture production, or at least mainly so, gives the best 
account of itself under moist conditions. Japan clover 
will grow on very poor soils, but the growth will be 
less vigorous proportionately than when it is grown on 
good soils. 

All the clovers should be sown early in the season 
except the crimson, and that variety is not well adapted to 
dry areas. As a rule, the clovers should be sown as early 
in the season as the land is in suitable condition to re- 
ceive them. In areas southward, it may answer to sow 
clovers early in the autumn. This method, however, is 
not applicable to northern areas, as the plants in these 
are unable to stand the rigors of the winter when sown 
thus late. They may be sown with the grain drill. More 
commonly they are sown with an attachment to the grain 
drill which allows the seed to fall before the grain tubes. 
It is much better, however, to have the seed feed into 
the grain tubes, which bury it with the grain, or, what 
is still better, running the seeder over the ground subse- 
quent to the sowing of the grain. It may then be 
buried at a proper depth. On winter rye ground it may 
be sown broadcast in the early spring and covered with 
the harrow, or it may be sown with a drill such as has 
been referred to above. 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 



325 



Clovers should usually be sown with a nurse crop. 
They may grow better, in some instances, without a 
nurse crop, but if clovers cannot be grown successfully 
without starting them with a nurse crop, it is question- 
able if it w^ill pay to grow them, since they are short lived. 
The nurse crops which would seem best adapted to their 
growth in the order named are : Speltz, barley, rye, 
wheat and oats. Oats are ill adapted as a nurse crop for 




DRY LAND CLOVER AND TIMOTHY, NEAR REDMOND, OREGON. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 



clovers, because of the abundance of the leaf growth, 
which produces an excessive shade, and draws heavily on 
the moisture in the soil. If clovers are sown along with 
oats, not more than 2 pecks per acre of the latter should 
be sow^n, and the crop should be cut for hay when it has 
reached the heading stage. They should be sown to the 
depth of 1 to 2 inches, on soil that is rfot stiff. It will not 



326 DRY LAND FARMING 

answer to sow clover on the surface, as in humid climates, 
for then it would not germinate. On very light soils it 
should be sown more deeply even than 2 inches. 

When red clover of either the medium or mammoth 
varietes is sown, about 6 pounds per acre should suf- 
fice. When Alsike is sown, about 4 pounds should be 
enough, and of the small white or the Japan even 3 
pounds should answer. 

Care of the crop. — If clover is sown in cold areas, it 
will not answer to pasture it down in the autumn of the 
year in which it is sown. \\'here the winters are mild, 
such pasturing is legitimate. If seed only is to be ob- 
tained, the crop may sometimes be pastured with ad- 
vantage in the early spring. It is questionable whether 
any form of cultivation that could be given to the crop 
after it has become established would be of much service 
to the crop. In cold areas the shelter furnished by the 
stubbles is proportionate to the length of the same. 

Harvesting for hay. — Clover of all kinds is ready 
for being harvested when it is in full bloom. It is, of 
course, cut with the mower. In a very short time in dry 
areas, it will be dry enough to rake. If not raked with 
some promptness, there will be loss of leaves and also 
injury to the crop from becoming overdry. In such areas 
curing may generally be completed in the winrow. The 
crop may be stored in the same way as alfalfa (see p. 318). 

Harvesting for seed. — In the absence of experience 
the discussion of this question cannot be definite or spe- 
cific. There are good reasons, however, for believing 
that clover will produce seed more abundantly relatively 
than hay. Whether in the case of medium red clover it 
would not be better to take seed from the first crop than 
to try to grow a second crop is at least an open ques- 
tion. From the mammoth and the Alsike, the seed 
must come from th'e first and only crop produced. 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 327 

The seed crop is ready for harvesting when the 
heads have nearly all assumed a reddish brown hue. They 
are so ripe when they become black that they are much 
liable to break off in the curing process. The seed crop 
is harvested in much the same way as alfalfa (see p. 319). 
If the huller cannot be had for threshing clover it should 
be run through the separator twice in order to get all 
the seed. The probable yields of seed in the dry areas 
cannot be given definitely yet. 

GROWING SAINFOIN 

Experience in growing sainfoin in the semi-arid 
areas of the west is somewhat limited, so much so that 
facts regarding its growth under dry conditions are al- 
most entirely wanting. It would seem probable,* how- 
ever, that sainfoin will fill a not imimportant place in 
providing food for live stock, both as hay and pasture in 
the semi-arid west. Sainfoin is a plant of the clover 
family. It is more branched in habit of growth than 
clover and attains a greater height. It furnishes two 
cuttings of hay in humid areas or one cutting of hay 
and one of seed, but under dry conditions it may not 
probably furnish more than one cutting. It is a good pas- 
ture plant, since it does not produce bloat as alfalfa does. 
It furnishes pasture quite as early as alfalfa and is 
probably as continuous and persistent in its habit of 
growth. It has a pink blossom which deepens into a 
crimson, so that a field of sainfoin lias a beautiful 
appearance when it is in early blossom. One of the 
greatest difficulties encountered in growing sainfoin is 
the relatively low vitality of the seed. Because of this 
the stands obtained from sainfoin seed are not as com- 
plete as could be desired. To prevent such an occur- 
rence large quantities of seed should be sown. 

Soils. — While sainfoin will grow on a variety of soils, 
it has pre-eminent adaptation for soils that are rich in 



328 DRY LAND FARMING 

lime and somewhat dry in character. This means that 
it should possess relatively high adaptation for many of 
the soils of the west, which, as a rule, are unusually well 
supplied with lime. This plant should, therefore, 
give a good account of itself on the volcanic ash soils 
of the far west. On soils saturated from seepage water 
or water from other sources, it should not be sown. 

Place in the rotation. — Sainfoin, like the clovers, 
should follow a cleaning crop. As it should remain in 
the soil from year to year for several years when a stand 
is once obtained, it ought to be sown only on well cleaned 
land. It should, therefore, follow summer-fallow, or a 
cultivated crop. It may be followed with much of fit- 
ness by flax or other small grain, or by a crop of corn. 
The enrichment which it brings to land should increase 
crop production in a marked degree. 

Preparing the soil. — The preparation of the soil for 
sainfoin is much the same as for alfalfa (see p. 314). 
It is especially important that sainfoin shall be sown 
on clean land, as intimated above, for the reason, first, 
that it is to remain in the soil for several years, and, sec- 
ond, that like alfalfa it is not well able to contend with 
weeds. 

Sowing. — The best methods of sowing sainfoin un- 
der the conditions that obtain in the semi-arid west have 
not been worked out as yet. It would seem correct to 
say, however, that the crop should be sown in the 
early spring, without a nurse crop. The question of 
varieties has not yet been raised in this country. 

The seed is sometimes sown in the hulled form, but 
it would seem correct to say that more commonly it is 
sown while yet unhulled. When thus sown it may be 
readily put into the soil with the ordinary grain drill. 
When sown in the hulled form, it may be necessary to 
mix it with some substance, as meal or road dust. 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 329 

It is buried about as deeply as alfalfa. Somewhat 
shallow planting is best, when moisture is ample, but, 
of course, in order to insure good germination, it must 
be put down to the moisture. The germination is slow 
at the best. '■ 

The amount of seed called for under dry land condi- 
tions, has not been well worked out. European practise 
sows very large amounts of seed. It calls for about 
40 pounds of clean and hulled seed per acre, and 3 to 
5 bushels of imhulled seed. A bushel of unhulled seed 
weighs about 26 pounds. These amounts would seem 
to be excessive for w^estern conditions, but this question 
has yet to be worked out. 

Care of the crop. — The treatment of the crop under 
western conditions is yet in the tentative stage. It would 
seem probable, however, that the treatment for sainfoin 
the first season would be about the same as for alfalfa 
(see p. 317). Where the winters are mild it should en- 
dure moderate pasturing the first season without injury. 
Subsequently it may be grazed through the whole sea- 
son or for only a part of it, hay or seed being furnished 
by it later. It is an excellent pasture crop. Whether 
it will endure discing like alfalfa does has not yet been 
proved, but it is not probable that it will endure treat- 
ment quite so harsh without sufifering injury. As in the 
case of alfalfa, it will eventually be crowded out more or 
less by grass and some forms of weed life. 

Harvesting for hay. — The harvesting of this crop 
for hay is about the same as the harvesting of alfalfa 
(see p. 318). The same precautions must be observed 
to prevent the shedding of the leaves and to insure the 
drying of the stems before storing the hay. The average 
yields of hay that may be looked for cannot be given in 
the present state of our knowledge. The quality of the 
hay is not quite equal to that of alfalfa, being a little 
more woody. 



330 DRY LAND FARMING 

Harvesting for seed. — The conditions in the semi- 
arid west would seem to be especially favorable for 
growing seed, for the same reasons that they favor the 
production of good seed of grains and other seed-produc- 
ing products. If seed can be produced with superior ger- 
minating power, it will mean much for the future of this 
plant. Information regarding the methods of handling 
the seed crop under dry land conditions is wholly want- 
ing, and the same may be said regarding the yields of the 
seed. But the method followed when harvesting alfalfa 
seed should answer also for sainfoin (see p. 319). As the 
seed shatters very easily, the seed crop must be handled 
with much care. 

GROWING VETCHES 

The exact place that the vetch will occupy in the 
production of the semi-arid regions cannot be fore- 
casted with precision at the present time. It would seem 
probable that it is only in areas that are favored with 
a considerable amount of moisture and temperatures 
that are reasonably cool, that it will grow in best form. 
The classes of vetch that are commonly grown include 
the common vetch and the sand vetch, frequently known 
as the hairy vetch. The latter is the more hardy of the 
two, not only in its power to endure cold but also to en- 
dure drought and hard conditions generally. 

The common vetch is chiefly grown for hay, but 
may be grown for pasture also. The sand vetch is fre- 
quently grown for pasture, but may also be grown for 
hay. In the drier and hotter regions of the semi-arid 
west, the vetch will not fill an important place in the 
economy of production. 

Soils. — The common vetch will grow well on any 
kind of soil that is possessed of a fairly abundant supply 
of plant food, and that has in it a reasonable amount of 
friability. It will grow on stiff clay soils, but not nearly 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 331 

so well as on those that are of open texture. The sand 
vetch, as the name implies, is best adapted to a soil of 
open texture which may be easily penetrated by the 
roots. It has more power to grow in soils low in fer- 
tility than the common vetch, but it will, of course, grow 
much better on soils that are well stored with plant 
food. 

Place in the rotation. — The common vetch may be 
given any place in the rotation, but, of course, not with 
equal adaptation. It comes naturally after a crop of small 
grain, to make amends for the depletion of fertility when 
growing the grain. But more frequently it will probably 
be sown along with some kind of grain to provide forage. 
The sand vetch is usually sown with some kind of small 
grain to provide forage or pasture, whether sown in the 
spring or in the autumn. 

Preparing the soil. — The preparation of the soil for 
vetches will be the same usually as the preparation of 
the same for the grain crop amid which it is sown. This 
means that the crop will very frequently be sown on 
summer-fallowed land when sown in the autumn, and 
on similar land when sown in the spring, or on land that 
has been cultivated. 

Sowing. — The common vetch is sometimes sown in 
the spring only, and in other instances both in the spring 
and fall, whether sown alone or with other grain. But 
it cannot be sown in the fall save where the winters are 
mild. The sand vetch is in some instances sown in the 
spring along with small grain and again it is sown simi- 
larly in the fall. More experimentation is wanted to 
determine conclusively the best time for sowing vetches. 
They are sown with the ordinary grain drill. The 
depth that will be most suitable for the grain will also 
answer for the vetches, hence the seeds may be mixed 
and sown with one cast rather than at different times. 
When the common vetch is sown alone, which is done 



332 DRY LAND FARMING 

in some instances, the seed is usually buried about 2 
to 3 inches. 

Three to 4 pecks of the vetch will usually suffice 
per acre. When the common vetch is sown in the 
spring, it furnishes excellent hay when sown with 
bald barley, but it may be also sown with oats. About 
2 pecks of vetch seed are sown per acre, and the usual 
amount of other grain sown is reduced by that much. 
About the same amount of the sand vetch ought to be 
sown. In the spring it may be sown with almost any 
kind of grain, reducing the amount of the same by only 
one peck. The vetch may add in a considerable degree 
to the value of the forage furnished by the grain. It 
will also grow on after the grain is harvested and fur- 
nish pasture both in the fall and spring, especially the 
latter. In the autumn the seed may be sown with 
winter wheat or rye, sowing about 2 pecks of vetch per 
acre and reducing the usual amount of grain by that 
much. The crop thus grown should usually be grown for 
hay. 

Care of the crop. — About the only care of the crop 
that can be given is the use of the harrow at certain 
times. The vetch will probably stand about the same 
amount of harrowing without injury as would be suitable 
for the grain with which it is sown. When the sand 
vetch is sown with spring grain, harrowing or even disc- 
ing after the grain crop has been removed, may prove 
helpful. In mild areas the pasturing of the vetch may 
be continued through much of the winter, but care must 
be taken in such instances not to injure the land by 
poaching. 

Harvesting for hay. — When the crop is cut for hay, 
if sown alone the common vetch should be harvested by 
the aid of the field mower with an attachment in the same 
way as peas (see p. 266). The sand vetch grown alone 
cannot be harvested thus because of the tangling of the 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 333 

vines. When these are grown with other grain crops, 
they may be harvested for hay with the binder or the 
mower. They should be cut for hay while yet a little 
short of full maturity. 

Harvesting for seed. — The common vetch may be 
harvested for seed when grown alone as peas are har- 
vested. It may also be threshed similarly (see p. 266). 
When seed is wanted from the sand vetch, it is best 
obtained by sowing it with grain as described above. 
Grown alone it would be almost impossible to harvest 
the crop owing to its recumbent and tangling habit of 
growth. When grown with grain such tangling is pre- 
vented, insomuch that the combined crop can be cut with 
the binder. When threshed the seeds are separated. 
Information as to yields of hay or seed are not yet ob- 
tainable. 

GROWING THE COW PEA 

The cow pea is not specially adapted for being grown 
in dry areas and yet it may be grown with profit under 
conditions where the rainfall is considerably less than 
what is considered normal in humid regions. This plant 
has marked adaptation for conditions in which the tem- 
peratures are higher than would be suitable for the suc- 
cessful growth of the Canadian field pea. In the dry 
area, therefore, one of these is in a sense the complement 
of the other, for where the temperatures become too 
warm for growing the Canada field pea at its best, they 
seem to have special adaptation for the successful growth 
of the cow pea. In the semi-arid areas, therefore, the 
cow pea will have a mission south of the parallel 45. 
North of the latitude named the Canada field pea will 
give results more satisfactory than can be obtained from 
the cow pea. 

Soils. — Cow peas may be grown on any kind of good 
soil. They are grown for the purpose, first, of providing 



334 DRY LAND FARMING 

hay, and, second, of enriching the land. Although this 
crop can be grown on soils low in fertility, it will grow 
much better on those that are well supplied with plant 
food. The best soils for cow peas, therefore, as for near- 
ly all other crops, are loams varying from clay to sand 
in their composition. Nearly all the soils of the semi- 
arid region have abundant plant food for the successful 
growth of cow peas. 

Place in the rotation. — As the cow pea is usually 
grown for hay or for the purpose of bringing plant food 
and humus to the land, it is more commonly sown after 
a grain crop. This means that it is more commonly 
sown after a crop of small grain and on land that has 
been specially prepared by correct cultivation autumn 
and spring. When cow peas are grown for a green crop 
that will be buried, any kind of a grain crop may follow 
the next season that is suitable to the locality. The 
same will be true of it when sown in rows and cultivated. 
In the latter instance more moisture will have been 
conserved as a rule than in the former. It is not pos- 
sible to sow cow peas in dry areas the same season after 
a crop of grain as it is in humid areas. 

Preparing the soil. — When cow peas follow grain 
the land may be prepared in essentially the same way as 
for peas (see p- 26G), with the difference that more time is 
given for working the soil on the surface before sowing 
the cow pea than would be possible to secure in the 
case of peas. Should the crop be sown on spring 
plowed land, which may be admissible in some instances, 
it should be plowed early and at once packed. 

Sowing. — Cow peas are of many varieties. The 
Wonderful is one of the best of these for average con- 
ditions. The Whippoorwill and the Black are also 
good, but these should not be sown save in warm lati- 
tudes. The time for sowing is not earlier than the close 
of the usual corn planting season. The cow pea will 



GROWING. LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 335 

not germinate in cold soil. Under dry conditions the 
seed should invariably be sown with the drill. As a rule 
the rows should be far enough apart to admit of easy cul- 
tivation. As the varieties named are vigorous growers, 
the vines will almost meet under many conditions of 
growth. The amount of seed to sow will seldom exceed 
one peck per acre. The seed should be buried about 2 
inches or lower if moisture is farther down. 

Care of the crop. — It may be harrowed before the 
crop is above the surface. In some instances the plants 
may be harrowed after they are above the ground, but 
more safely with the weeder. The cultivation should be 
about the same as that given to corn (see p. 280). 

Harvesting for hay. — The cow pea furnishes excel- 
lent hay, but it is slow in curing. The hay may be cut 
with the mower, but better with the pea harvester. It 
is best cured in small coils. Dry areas are particularly 
favorable to the curing of the hay. When cured as 
described it is particularly valuable for feeding purposes, 
being unusually palatable and nutritious. As the vines 
tangle some, the hay is not always easy to handle. 

Harvesting for seed. — As the cow pea ripens its seed 
very unevenly, the common method adopted to secure 
seed was that of hand-picking. The process is slow and 
costly. Another method is to harvest the crop when 
ripe, and thresh it as the common pea is threshed. 

GROWING SWEET CLOVER 

In northern areas sweet clover has never been given 
that attention which its good qualities should give to it. 
In several of the states, this comparatively harmless plant 
is proscribed as a noxious weed. Notwithstanding, the 
following may be said in regard to this much despised 
and much maligned plant: (1) It will grow on soils too 
low in the elements of fertility for the successful growth 
of many other plants. (2) It will grow on soils strong- 



336 DRY LAND FARMING 

ly impregnated with alkali, and in its growth on these 
soils much of the alkali is removed, thus preparing the 
way for crops possessed of higher economic food value. 
(3) It will grow well at high altitudes, which means that 
the area in which it may be successfully grown is very 
wide. (4) It is one of the most valuable of the nitrogen 
gathering of the legumes. Its ability to draw nitrogen 
from the atmosphere and to deposit the same in the soil 
is in a sense unrivalled. (5) The nodules that live on 
the roots are essentially the same as those which feed 
alfalfa plants, hence sweet clover may be made the fore- 
runner of alfalfa. (6) It will produce a large amount of 
green manure for being buried in the soil. On soils 
that are strongly impregnated with alkali this pro- 
duction is simply beneficent. (7) Stock, which may not 
eat it at first, will at length become fond of it, notwith- 
standing the bitter principle which it contains, and will 
thrive on it. (8) It is most persistent in its habit of 
growth, more so, probably, than any other plant grown 
in dry areas. 

The prejudice that has led this plant to be regarded 
as a weed is not well founded. It has arisen, doubt- 
less, from the fact that, because of a bitter principle which 
it contains, live stock do not relish it, but they may be 
trained to feed upon it with satisfaction. The place that 
may yet be assigned to it is a large one in dry areas, 
not only in providing food for live stock under hard con- 
ditions, but also in removing an excess of alkali from the 
soil. This plant is also one of the best honey plants 
that can be grown. 

Soils. — Sweet clover will thrive on soils that are low 
in the elements of plant food and that are firm in texture. 
In fact it seems to thrive, better on soils that are firm in 
texture than on those that are loose and spongy. It is a 
plant that would seem to thrive best under hard condi- 
tions, notwithstanding the violence which such a state- 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 337 

ment may represent with reference to ordinary plant 
growth. Sweet clover will thrive on barren, gravelly and 
sandy soils, and when grown it may be made to increase 
their fertility by the nitrogen which it has brought to 
them, and to improve their mechanical texture by bury- 
ing the growth that has been made in the soil. 

Place in the rotation. — As sweet clover is a plant 
that grows under hard conditions it may be given almost 
any place in the rotation. It may be grown with much 
propriety on lands that are low in the elements of plant 
food, and that are lacking in friability, also on lands that 
are impregnated so strongly with alkali as to preclude 
the growing of crops on the same. The burial of the 
sweet clover in the same will have an effect that is simply 
beneficent in the amelioration of such soils. 

Preparing the soil. — The preparing of the soil for 
sweet clover is by no means an elaborate process. In 
some instances, the scattering of the seed on sandy or 
gravelly soil will result in a stand of the plants, even in 
the absence of harrowing. But this does not mean that 
sweet clover will not do relatively better on well pre- 
pared land. It is a fact nevertheless that sweet clover 
does not grow well on land that is possessed of a marked 
degree of friability. 

Sovv^ing. — Information regarding the best methods 
of sowing sweet clover is much lacking. That the seed 
may be sown in the early spring and along with a nurse 
crop is doubtless feasible. The clover should not seri- 
ously interfere with the growth of the nurse crop^. The 
next year the clover should furnish a crop of hay or of 
pasture as may be desired. The fact, however, that sweet 
clover will sow itself makes it quite apparent that it 
would be possible to obtain a stand of sweet clover by 
sowing it in the autumn, either alone or with a nurse 
crop. When sown with a nurse crop, the seed may be 
put in by mixing it with the grain, or by sowing it with 



338 DRY LAND FARMIN^G 

an attachment of the grain drill. It is better to sow the 
seed shallow. This will be at once apparent from the 
fact that the crop is self-sown in so many instances, the 
seeds falling on the surface. But when spring-sown, the 
seeds cannot usually germinate without a certain amount 
of covering. The amount of seed that will suffice is not 
large, probably not more than 6 to 8 pounds per acre. 
But information on this point is very meagre, because of 
the slight extent to which it has been sown in dry areas. 

Care of the crop. — When sown with a nurse crop, 
sweet clover does not require any other attention than 
what will be called for by the nurse crop. When sown 
alone it may profit by harrowing more or less. Should 
the crop ever prove troublesome, as is sometimes the 
case, by volunteering to grow where it is not wanted, 
it may soon be removed by simply preventing it from 
going to seed. It is a biennial, hence the plants can only 
persist in growing for two years. Should it grow in 
alfalfa fields, the frequent cutting of the alfalfa will soon 
cause it to disappear. Should it grow on the sides that 
line the irrigating ditches, it may soon be removed from 
these by persistent cutting, and it may be readily sup- 
planted by alfalfa, if the seed is sown at the proper 
season. 

Harvesting for hay. — When this crop is harvested 
for hay it is greatly important that it shall be cut at an 
early stage of growth, as early as the stage of the first 
appearance of bloom. If allowed to grow longer, the 
stems become woody. Because of a bitter principle 
which the plants contain, they are not relished by live 
stock, but in dry areas where other grazing plants and 
other forage may not be present in much variety, they 
soon learn to relish the plants, as pasture or as forage. 
It is managed like alfalfa when harvested for hay (see 
p. 318). 



GROWING LEGUMES IN DRY AREAS 339 

Harvesting for seed. — But little information can be 
given with reference to the growing of seed, as it is not 
much grown. The plants, however, seed plentifully. It 
may be harvested for seed about the same as alfalfa and 
threshed in the same way. No figures can be given with 
reference to the yields of hay or of seed that will be 
of any special value. 

As a green manure. — Sweet clover should furnish 
vegetable matter to the soil by sowing it with grain in 
the spring and by burying the plants the next season 
when the land is to be summer-fallowed. When sown on 
gumbo land the plants when buried should have a dis- 
integrating effect on the hard soil. 



CHAPTER XIV • 

GROWING HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY 

AREAS 

The hay crop in dry areas is obtained from three 
sources. These are legumes, the grasses proper and cer- 
tain of the grain crops. Of these the most important 
source by far is the legumes which have been discussed 
in chapter XIII. The cultivated grasses which will fur- 
nish hay in dry areas are not numerous. Of these the 
three that are most important are timothy, western rye 
grass and brome grass. Hay from grains is relatively 
far more important in dry areas than in those that are 
humid. 

In many sections of the dry country, pastures are 
obtainable from rugged lands that never can be tilled, 
and yet they are in close proximity to arable farms. The 
owners of arable farms who can utilize such pastures are 
fortunate, as they are in proximity to cheap pastures 
furnished by nature from rugged lands that never can be 
tilled. In many instances, however, the tillable areas 
are not in proximity to such lands, hence, the necessity 
for obtaining pastures from other sources. The pasture 
problem in dry areas is confessedly difficult. This is 
owing to the fact that the grasses grown cannot usually 
be cultivated during the period of growth, as the grains 
are cultivated, hence the conservation of moisture in 
growing of grasses is difficult. The chief cultivated 
grasses grown for pastures in dry areas are virtually the 
same as those grown for hay, but for pasture they are 
more frequently grown in combination than for hay. 
The growing of pasture is the most difficult problem that 
confronts the farmer in dry areas. 

Growing timothy. — While timothy is the best grass 
for furnishing hay for horses that has yet been introduced 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 341 

in many portions of the dry areas, it does not grow so 
well as either western rye or brome grass. It does not 
stand dry conditions so well as either of these grasses, 
hence when grown it should be in favored situations, as 
near the foothills of the mountains where the seepage 
waters furnish moisture from subterranean sources, or 
where the rainfall is more than normal for dry areas. 

Soils. — Loam soils are the best for timothy, more 
especially those that are rich in vegetable matter. Timo- 
thy will not grow well on sandy or gravelly soils when 
these are not plentifully supplied with moisture. 

Place in the rotation. — In the rotation, timothy 
should come after summer-fallow or after a cultivated 
crop. Unless it is sown on land reasonably well-stored 
with moisture, the plants may die even after they have 
germinated. Among the best crops to follow timothy 
are flax and corn. 

Preparing the land. — The preparation that is suit- 
able for the crop along with which timothy is sown is 
also suitable for timothy. It should not be sown on 
rough or cloddy ground, hence where a good stand of 
timothy is expected the soil should be made fine near the 
surface. A seed so small as timothy will not prove sat- 
isfactory in cloddy land. 

Sowing. — When timothy is sown alone, it may be 
sown fall or spring, preferably the former, as when thus 
sown it is much less liable to fail from drought than 
when sown in the spring. When sown in the fall, it is 
usually sown along with a crop of winter wheat, also in 
certain areas with winter barley. Such sowing is surer 
to secure a stand than spring sowing, as the plants have 
time to become firmly rooted before the arrival of dry 
weather. 

The seed is sown with a nurse crop, preferably winter 
rye, winter wheat, and southward winter barley, but it 
may also be sown in the spring, especially in such areas 



342 DRY LAND FARMING - 

as the Upper Flathead valley where the rainfall is much 
distributed throughout the year. The seed is usually 
sown with a seeder of the wheelbarrow type, and covered 
with the harrow. At other times it is sown with the 
seeder attachment to the grain drill. Again it is sown 
on very light and loose soils by mixing it with the grain. 
On firm soils such burial would be quite too deep. Ordi- 
narily one inch of a covering will be ample, providing 
moisture comes thus near to the surface. When sown 
alone, from 8 to 10 pounds of seed will usually be found 
ample for an acre. 

Care of the crop. — But little can be done by way of 
caring for the crop after it has been sown. When sown 
with winter grain and well rooted, it may be quite pos- 
sible to harrow the grain in the spring without dislodging 
many of the timothy plants, but this work will have to 
be done with a prudent caution, as timothy is a shallow 
rooted plant. To harrow the grain crop when the timo- 
thy is sown in the spring after the timothy has appeared 
above ground would mean the destruction of the young 
plants quite as effectively as it would cause the destruc- 
tion of weeds. The greatest hazard to the young timo- 
thy crop comes when the nurse crop is maturing and sub- 
sequently. The maturing of the crop draws heavily on 
soil moisture. This drain, with the warm, dry period that 
follows, is hazardous to the stand. The hazard is much 
lessened when the nurse crop is cut for hay soon after 
the heading stage. 

Harvesting. — Timothy is cut with the mower when 
cut for hay. It is raked when partially cured, and in dry 
areas the curing is usually completed in the winrows, 
from which the crop is lifted with forks, by a hay loader 
or otherwise. It cures readily and quickly. The yields 
run from about 1 to 2 tons per acre. 

When cut for seed, it is harvested and cured like 
grain. It is threshed with the ordinary separator from 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 343 

the shock or stack, as may be found convenient. The 
yields of seed run ordinarily from, say, 6 to 10 bushels 
per acre. 

Combinations. — While timothy may be sown with 
various other grasses, the best combination is that of 
timothy and common red clover on average soil, and 
timothy and alsike clover on low land. The amounts to 
sow may be put at, say, 5 to 6 pounds each of timothy 
and common red clover per acre, and 5 to 6 pounds of 
timothy and 3 pounds of alsike clover. 

Growing western rye grass. — Western rye grass, fre- 
quently designated slender wheat, grass, is probably the 
best grass, all things considered, for dry conditions that 
can be grown. The seed has good germinating power. 
The grass is very hardy in standing heat, cold and 
drought, and it is abiding. It makes reasonably good 
hay and pasture, but for either use it does not rank very 
high among the grasses. It tends to grow more or less 
in bunches but not so much so as orchard grass. It is 
indigenous to the prairies of the west and it grows in 
highest perfection in those of the northwest. 

Soils. — This grass will grow on nearly all soils found 
in western areas, but of course in best form on those that 
are reasonably friable, rich and moist. It will not grow 
on alkali lands. It will grow better relatively on soils 
lacking in moisture than any other useful grass that has 
yet been introduced. Its adaptation for wet soils is low 
rather than high. 

Place in the rotation. — Western rye grass will be 
surer to make a stand when it is sown after the bare-fal- 
low, or after a cultivated crop. But since it has much 
power to grow, in areas where the rainfall is more than 
15 inches per year it may answer under some conditions 
to sow it on other land. Usually it is sown with some 
kind of a nurse crop. When the sod of this grass is 
broken it may with much fitness be followed with flax or 



344 



DRY LAND FARMING 



corn or even potatoes as the first crop and small grain 
as the second, unless where the rainfall is more than 
ordinarily deficient. 

Preparing the land. — The preparation of the land is 
the same as would be suitable for the nurse crop. As 
for all other grass seeds, the seed bed should be fine and 
moist up near to the surface and, of course, firm below. 





''^ 



DRY LAND WESTERN RYE GRASS, WESTERN MONTANA 

Courtesy Northern Pacific Railway Co. 



Viewed from the standpoint of the needs of the grass 
only, the surface cannot be too well pulverized. 

Sowing. — As in the case of timothy, this grass may 
be sown fall or spring. If sown in the autumn, it should 
be along with winter rye or winter wheat. In areas of 
low winter temperatures, it should be sown in the early 
autumn. If sown in the spring, this hardy grass cannot 
well be sown too early. As with timothy, in some in- 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 345 

stances, it will answer to mix the seed with the grain and 
sow it thus. It feeds out more evenly when sown thus 
than timothy, but under average conditions, it is safer to 
sow it by running the drill a second time over the land at 
right angles to the rows that were made when the nurse 
crop was sown. If sown alone, which may in some in- 
stances be a good plan, it may answer simply to broad- 
cast and harrow the seed where a grain drill is not avail- 
able. The seed may be buried between 1 and 2 inches, 
but should it be necessary to bury it even more deeply 
on loose soils, it will come up from a greater depth. 
When sown alone from 8 to 10 pounds of seed should 
suffice per acre under dry land conditions. 

Care of the crop. — When sown in the early autumn, 
this grass may be so far advanced that it will not inter- 
fere with the harrowing that should be given to the grain 
crop at that season, but there are instances when such 
harrowing would do harm. In the spring neither the 
grass nor the nurse crop will be harmed by judicious 
harrowing when the first blade points of the grain begin 
to show. Under some conditions it may answer to sow 
the grain just before such harrowing is given to the crop. 
If sown alone, the grass may be pastured the first season, 
but care must be taken not to graze too closely. 

Harvesting. — Western rye grass should be harvested 
for hay soon after it is fully out in head. The hay soon 
becomes woody if not cut promptly and when it does 
much has been lost in palatability. The hay is firm, like 
that made by timothy, and the yields are usually better 
under dry conditions. The cutting and curing are done in 
the same way as when handling timothy (see p. 342). 
This grass should seldom yield less than a ton per acre 
and in some instances it will yield considerably more. 

It is cut for seed with the binder, cured in the shock 
and threshed with the grain thresher from the shock, or 
stack. The winnowing is easily accomplished by the aid 



346 • DRY LAND FARMING 

of the fanning mill. It yields seed profusely, frequently 
as much as 300 to 400 pounds per acre. 

Combinations for western rye grass. — This grass is 
frequently sown with brome grass. The combination is 
particularly good when these grasses are grown for pas- 
ture. The brome aids in filling in the spaces between the 
rye grass plants. The plan is good which sows the com- 
bined crop along with a thin seeding of grain in the early 
spring, and cutting the same for hay at the heading stage 
or grazing it. When thus sown about 2 pecks of grain 
will suffice. About 5 pounds each of these two grasses 
will prove ample. 

GROWING BROME GRASS 

Brome grass (Bromus inermis) is, next to western 
rye grass, the highest in its adaptation for areas with but 
limited rainfall. It should be remembered, however, that 
the strength and vigor of this grass increase with in- 
crease in the amount of moisture present. In moist areas 
and on alluvial lands difficulty is found in removing this 
grass from the soil when the ground is plowed on which 
it grew, but no such difficulty exists where moisture is 
lacking. It would seem quite safe to say that brome 
stands at the head of all the grasses in providing pasture 
under hard conditions. Northern areas have relatively 
higher adaptation for the growth of this grass than those 
that lie to the southward. 

Soils. — This grass grows best on alluvial soils that 
have much power to hold moisture. It also grows rela- 
tively well on the brown loam soils of the benches dis- 
tributed over the Plains region. It will grow reasonably 
well on high soils, too light for the growth of timothy, 
but on these the roots do not spread as in rich, moist soils, 
nor do the plants thicken to the same extent. It has no 
special adaptation for gumbo lands. 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 347 

Place in the rotation. — The rotation for brome grass 
is but Httle different from the rotation for timothy and 
western rye grass referred to above. It comes after 
fallow or cultivated land and before corn, flax or potatoes. 
It remains longer in the soil than most other grasses, 
should such prolongation be desired. In instances some- 
what numerous, experience has shown that small grains 
do not succeed well as the first crop after brome, and 
probably for the reason that the roots do not decay quick- 
ly enough to afford nourishment for the roots of the 
plants. Corn, therefore, is one of the safest crops to fol- 
low brome grass. 

Preparing the soil. — The young brome grass plants 
grow delicately and slowly for a time, hence the impor- 
tance of having the soil in a good condition as to tilth 
and moisture when the seed is sown. Fine pulveriza- 
tion after fallow or a cultivated crop furnishes a very 
desirable condition, but it is possible to obtain stands of 
this grass on stubble land that has been disced in sea- 
sons of considerable moisture. 

Sowing. — Brome grass may be sown during almost 
any month of the growing season, hence it is better to 
sow it in the early spring than at other times. It is not 
easily sown because of the relative lightness of the seed. 
When it is sown by hand, even a light wind may result 
in an uneven stand of the grass. When sown with the 
grain drill, it does not feed out readily unless mixed with 
some substance that is heavier. When sown on 
light soils, it may be mixed with a light seeding of oats, 
but the oats should be cut while yet green and made into 
hay. Even when sown on heavy soils, this method of 
seeding may answer, but in such instances the burial 
given should be very light. In mild latitudes, and where 
much of the precipitation falls in the winter, the seed 
may be sown in the autumn. As a rule, however, it 
should not be buried so deeply as the grain amid which 



348 DRY LAND FARMING 

it is sown. In northern areas, it is sometimes sown in 
the late autumn without a nurse crop. In such instances, 
it is usually sown by hand and harrowed in, but of course 
it may be sown otherwise. 

Shallow sowing is preferred, not deeper than 1 to 3 
inches on average soils. The amount of seed varies much 
with the object sought in sowing. When sown alone to 
provide pasture, where the rainfall is limited, from 10 to 
12 pounds of seed should be enough. When sown to pro- 
vide hay, 8 to 10 pounds should suffice, and this quantity 
may be still further reduced when seed is sought. The 
tendency in this grass is to thicken continually or at 
least up to a certain limit, hence the quantities of seed 
sown need not be relatively large. 

Care of the crop. — It is usually hazardous to use a 
harrow on a nurse crop amid which brome grass has been 
sown, or the feeble young plants of brome may be de- 
stroyed. When sown with a light nurse crop of oats 
or other grain in the spring, the crop may in many in- 
stances be pastured with profit to the same, but not at an 
early period of growth. Should the grass thicken so as 
to hinder abundant growth, it may be renewed by double 
discing followed by the harrow, the work being done in 
the early spring. In other instances shallow plowing 
in the late autumn or early spring will efifect the same 
end. The growth of the grass may also be greatly stimu- 
lated by top-dressings of farmyard manure, preferably 
applied in the late autumn or during the winter. 

Harvesting. — Brome grass is ready to harvest for 
hay soon after coming into head. It is harvested in the 
same way as timothy (see p. 342). The feeding quality 
of the hay is not far different from that of timothy, but 
because of its soft and somewhat flufTy character it will 
never take the place of timothy in the market. In the 
semi-arid country one ton should be looked upon as a 
fairly average yield of hay from an acre. 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 349 

It is ready to cut for seed in about three weeks after 
coming into head, or when the seeds are full of meat, but 
not more advanced in growth than the dough stage. 
More commonly the crop is harvested with the binder 
set so high in some instances as to take only the seed 
stems, thus leaving a leafy residue that may be cut for 
hay. The seed is threshed with the ordinary thresher 
but owing to its lightness the wind must be shut off from 
the machine, or the seed will be blown away. From 300 
to 400 pounds of seed are frequently produced per acre 
from the first cutting of the crop, but as a rule the yields 
grow less with advancing age in the growth of the plants. 

Combinations for brome grass. — In humid areas 
these are many. In dry areas one of the best combina- 
tions for brome is western rye grass (see p. 343). The 
presence of the brome tends to thicken the stand. The 
yield of the combined mixture is, therefore, greater, for 
hay or for pasture than either grown alone. But in dry 
areas yields must not be looked for so large as those fur- 
nished in humid areas. 

GROWING HAY FROM GRAINS 

In dry areas hay from grains is sought for to a much 
greater extent than in humid areas. This is owing (1) to 
the larger relative yields that may be obtained ; (2) to 
the fact that the hay is frequently fed without first thresh- 
ing the crop, and (3) because a more complete ration 
may be obtained by feeding it thus. The larger relative 
yields result chiefly from cultivation given to the grain 
while it is growing. In the newer areas, it is more con- 
venient to feed the crops than to thresh them, as it may 
not be easily possible to secure a machine to do the work. 
When grown in combination, it is possible to produce a 
ration suited to the needs of different classes of stock. 
The chief of the grain crops thus grown are rye of the 



350 DRY LAND FARMING 

winter and spring varieties, wheat, barley, oats, peas 
and vetches. 

Grown alone for hay. — The chief of these crops 
grown alone for hay are rye, wheat, barley and oats. 
The beards of the speltz lower its value greatly for hay, 
and the recumbent growth of peas and vetches increases 
much the labor of harvesting when these crops are 
grown alone. Although rye may be grown under climatic 
and soil conditions so rigid as to prevent the successful 
growth of other grains, its woody character gives it a 
much lower place as a hay plant than would otherwise 
be assigned to it. Wheat makes excellent hay for horses 
but the value of the grain renders it too costly to feed 
thus in a large way. Barley is in high favor in many 
areas, especially in those of the far west and southwest. 
For such use the beardless varieties are the most popular. 
Oats are grown to furnish food for cows more than for 
other uses. 

Grown in combination for hay. — The combinations 
that will prove the most suitable will vary with the soil 
and climatic conditions. The favorite combinations are: 
(1) oats and peas; (2) barley and peas, and (3) barley 
and the common vetch. When thus grown in proper 
combination, the peas and vetches are sustained so that 
they may be harvested with a grain binder should this 
be desired. Oats and peas, barley and peas, and barley 
and vetches furnish most excellent hay for milch cows. 
Nearly mature and fed with alfalfa hay, the ration would 
be complete in itself. In areas where the precipitation 
falls chiefly in the winter, hay furnished by the sand vetch 
and winter wheat or winter rye may yet become popular. 

Soils. — It would not be possible to state with exact 
precision the soils that will best meet the needs of these 
combinations, but, since bulk is an important considera- 
tion when growing hay, the aim should be to grow them 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 351 

on good soil. Winter rye and the sand vetch will grow 
better on soils low in fertility than the other crops. 

Place in the rotation. — The place in the rotation for 
these crops is virtually the same as when they are grown 
separately for the grain. They come most fittingly on 
land that has been made clean and in which moisture has 
been conserved by correct processes of cultivation. In 
a normal season, they will usually do well also on break- 
ing if sown early. They are best followed by corn or 
fallow, but where the normal rainfall is 15 inches or more 
they may be followed by grain if the soil has been judi- 
ciously prepared. 

Preparing the land. — The land should be prepared 
as for crops sown for the grain. Although a clean seed 
bed is very desirable, these crops will take less injury 
from the presence of weeds than grain crops, as they may 
be cut, if necessary, considerably short of maturity. The 
weeds may thus be prevented from forming seed. 

Sowing. — When sowing grain alone to furnish hay, 
the procedure is much the same as when sowing it to 
mature seed but some additional seed may be used to 
improve the quality of the hay by making it less coarse 
than it would otherwise be. In combinations, the chief 
differences arise from the determination of the amounts 
of seed to sow, and some modifications as to the method 
of sowing which are referred to below. 

Grain for hay should be sown as soon as the land is 
in good condition for being tilled. Early sowing will 
usually have an important influence on the yield. But 
should it not be possible to sow the crop early, such grain 
will take less harm than if it were to ripen, because of 
the fact that it may be harvested when considerably short 
"of maturity. * 

The seed is best sown with the grain drill. The 
depth will vary with the kind or kinds, but usually not 
greatly. When mixtures are sown, in many instances, it 



352 DRY LAND FARMING 

will answer quite well to mix them before sowing. In 
the case of peas and. other grain, the plan is good which 
drills in the peas deeply and then about two weeks later 
drills in the other grain less deeply. The aim should be 
to sow varieties that ripen nearly at the same time. It 
will not be possible to state the amounts that it will al- 
ways be most suitable to sow, but the following amounts 
will be approximate: For sowing alonej rye 6 pecks, 
wheat 5, barley 5, oats 5 ; for sowing in mixtures, oats 
and peas 2 and 3 pecks respectively, barley and peas 2 and 
3 pecks, and barley and vetches 2 and 3 pecks. 

Care of the crop. — Usually the grain may be har- 
rowed when the points begin to appear. It may also be 
harrowed once again or oftener, but in the case of peas 
and vetches, the harrowing should be given with much 
care after the crop is up. Should the grain be too thick 
it may be beneficial to the crop to harrow out some of the 
grain. 

Harvesting. — Grain for hay may be cut at any time 
fiom the earing stage until it is nearly ripe, according to 
the kind and the use that is to be made of it. It is pos- 
sessed of maximum nutrition when cut with the grain in 
the dough stage. 

When grain is cut for hay, the aim should be to cut 
it with the binder when practicable and cure it in the 
shock. The labor of handling is thus much reduced, but 
the cost of the binding twine must not be overlooked. 
When cut while yet quite green, the binding should not 
be tight, lest some mold be engendered beneath the bands. 
The aim should be to cure it in long shocks, and to stack 
as soon as ready, to prevent over-curing. Of course, 
whenever the grain is cut, it may be cut with the mower 
and raked and cured like other hay, but there is always 
more or less waste in handling it thus. 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 353 

GROWING HAY FROM THE MILLETS 

Millet, at least in several of its varieties, may be 
fairly classed as a dry land plant. In some instances it 
is grown for the grain, but more commonly it is grown 
for the hay. It has relatively higher adaptation for 
southern than for northern latitudes, and for low rather 
than high elevations. It is readily injured by frost both 
in the spring and in the autumn. 

Soils. — The best soils for growing millet in the ab- 
sence of irrigation are loams well capable of retaining 
moisture. The more humus which they contain, the 
higher is their relative adaptation. The plants have but 
little power to struggle on soils leachy and light and prac- 
tically destitute of humus. To sow them on pronounced- 
ly alkali soil is to throw the seed away. 

Place in the rotation. — The place in the rotation will 
depend somewhat on the method of sowing. If the seed 
is broadcasted, a method of sowing which should be 
avoided, it will not succeed well after a grain crop in a 
normal season, save where the rainfall is considerably 
above 15 inches. Nor can the growth be considered safe 
when it is sown on such land with the grain drill, all the 
grain tubes being in use. If sown in spaced rows and 
cultivated like corn, it may do reasonably well. On new 
breaking, fairly good yields are obtained from drilling in 
like grain and even from broadcast sowing but the plan 
is attended with some hazard. Ground cultivated or 
summer tilled cannot well be spared for. this crop. A 
cultivated crop on the summer-fallow naturally follows 
millet, but when the millet crop has been cultivated a 
small grain crop may follow. 

Preparing the land. — While the preparation of the 
land for millet should be fine and clean, it is specially im- 
portant that the moisture shall be retained sufficiently 
to germinate the seed when it is sown. The late season 



354 DRY LAND FARMING 

at which the seed is sown gives ample time to prepare 
the land thus. As millet draws heavily on the moisture 
in the soil, it will not make a satisfactory growth on 
weedy land. 

Sowing. — It would seem safe to say that the best 
dry land millet, all things considered, is the broom corn 
variety, although some other varieties, as the Hungarian, 
German and Japanese, may have higher adaptation for 
sectional areas. Pearl millet is valuable for southern 
areas. 

Millet should not be sown until the ground and 
weather have become reasonably warm. Even though 
safe germination should follow early sowing, the growth 
subsequently is not likely to be so satisfactory as 
when the seed is sown later. About the best time to 
sow millet is at the close of the corn planting season or 
about the same time as would be suitable for field beans 
(see p. 298). When the seed is sown, with the drill, all 
the tubes in use, not more than 1^ pecks of seed should 
be used per acre. When sown in rows and cultivated, 
from, say, 4 to 8 quarts of seed should suffice, according 
to the spacing of the rows. These may be from, say, 24 
to 36 inches apart, the wide spacing giving the better 
opportunity for cultivating the crop. The seed is buried 
from 1 to 2 inches or even to a greater depth, according 
to the soil conditions. 

Care of the crop. — If millet is harrowed before the 
crop is up the aim should be to stir the ground as shal- 
low as such work can be done. When the crop is 3 to 
4 inches high, harrowing may only in some instances be 
given with profit. The later cultivation given to the 
crop grown in rows should be much the same as that 
given to a corn crop (see p. 280). 

Harvesting. — Millet is ready to harvest for hay when 
all the plants are fully out in head, and for seed when all 
have assumed a golden tint, except in varieties the seeds 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 355 

of which are some other tint. When harvested for hay, 
the millet may be cut with the mower or the binder, 
preferably the latter, when the crop stands up well and 
the land is smooth. The binder should be set low. If 
mown, the completion of the curing should take place in 
the cock. If cut and bound it should take place in long 
shocks. The yield should average a ton or somewhat 
more per acre. When harvested for seed the crop should 
always be handled like small grain. The yields of seed 
vary greatly. Broom corn millet should average about 
20 bushels per acre. 

Combination for millet. — In dry areas millet is but 
little grown in combination for hay. It may, however, 
be drilled in with sorghum or even Kafir corn, but the 
advantage from growing it in combinations is to be ques- 
tioned. 

GROWING PASTURE CROPS FROM GRASS 

The term ''grass'' as used here includes clovers and 
alfalfa. To grow these pasture crops is one of the most 
difficult problems that confronts the dry land farmer. 
This is owing to the fact, first, that grass crops draw 
heavily on the moisture in the soil, and, second, that a 
dust mulch cannot be maintained on them to anything 
like the same extent as on a grain crop. The native 
grasses furnish a relatively small amount of pasture, and 
the same is true of the prickly pear in far southern areas, 
and the amount decreases with close and continued pas- 
turing. It is the estimate of many ranchmen that from 
10 to 15 acres are called for of native pasture in dry areas 
to maintain a cattle beast of nearly mature or mature 
age for one year. The dry land farmer cannot aft'ord 
to use any large proportion of his arable land in that 
way, so small is the return from it, hence the necessity 
for growing other and relatively more productive pas- 
tures. 



356 DRY LAND FARMING 

Pasture plants grown alone. — The grass plants that 
will prove the most satisfactory in furnishing pastures 
under arable conditions cannot be stated with absolute 
precision at the present time, because of the lack of ex- 
perience in growing these. It is probable, however, that 
when grown alone, brome grass (Bromus inermis) will 
furnish more grazing over a wide area than any other 
grass. Next to brome grass in general adaptation is 
western rye grass (Agropyrum tenerum) but it will not 
furnish as much pasture nor does the period of growth 
cover nearly so large a portion of the growing season. 
There will be a more limited place for tall oat grass and 
meadow fescue. Timothy may also be grown under the 
more moist conditions. For certain kinds of grazing, 
alfalfa will also have an important place. The impor- 
tance of this plant for pasture is found, first, in the large 
growth which it produces ; second, in the long period cov- 
ered by its growth, and, third, in the fact that a soil 
mulch may to a certain extent be maintained in the crop. 
The value of sainfoin in thus providing pasture has yet 
to be determined under dry conditions. 

Pasture plants grown in combination. — It is prob- 
able that the most valuable pastures in dry areas, as in 
other areas, will be those that are grown in certain com- 
binations. Here, also, the grasses that will furnish the 
best pastures cannot be stated with precision from lack 
of experience in growing them. In the northern por- 
tions of the semi-arid belt, a mixture of brome, western 
rye and alfalfa will probably furnish more pasture than 
any other grass combination that can be grown. Far- 
ther south, tall oat grass or meadow fescue will probably 
take the place of brome grass. In the more moist areas, 
as where the annual rainfall is near 20 inches, the old- 
time pasture, timothy and clover, will probably best serve 
the end sought. 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 357 

Soils. — Since on the arable farms, the aim should be 
to rotate the pastures more or less with other crops, the 
fact remains that these will grow best on moist soils. The 
aim should be, therefore, to grow them to a greater ex- 
tent on the more moist soils of the farm. On the drier 
lands, grain pastures may serve the purpose relatively 
better. 

Place in the rotation. — The aim should be to start 
pastures on clean land, hence they should be sown as a 
rule on fallowed or cultivated land. Whether it would 
answer to sow them after small grain, and pasture them 
the season that they are sown in order to keep down 
weeds and to firm the land by the treading has not been 
ascertained as yet. Nor has it been determined as to 
how long the land should be kept in pasture. The indi- 
cations at present are, however, that, all things consid- 
ered, short rotations will prove the most satisfactory. 
The crops that follow pastures will be the same as those 
that follow newly broken prairie, that is, such crops as 
winter wheat on fallow land, or such crops as flax, corn or 
potatoes on sod land that has been broken in the spring. 

Preparing the land. — While it is important that the 
soil shall be fine, firm below and clean, that is to be sown 
to grass, it may be very difficult to provide for it a clean 
seed bed. This may arise, first, from the fact that in a dry 
season weed seeds may not germinate though near the 
surface, on fallow or on cultivated land, but may germi- 
nate the next season after the grasses have been sown. It 
may arise, second, from the large amount of weed seed 
that may be carried to clean land and strewn over the 
same. These contingencies may prove a real difficulty in 
the way of getting a clean stand of grass. Because of 
this, it may be wise to sow some of these grasses with a 
nurse crop sown early in the season. 

Sowing. — At the present time it would not be pos- 
sible to state positively the very best method of sowing 



358 DRY LAND FARMING 

grasses in combination under all conditions. The 
methods of sowing these singly have already been dis- 
cussed. It would seem reasonable, however, to expect 
that one of the best combinations that can be sown will 
consist of brome grass, western rye grass and alfalfa. 
The seed may be mixed before sowing it. It would seem 
safe to say that the best method of sowing the mixture 
would be with the grain drill and along with a nurse 
crop of, say, 2 pecks of oats or some other grain. It 
should be sown to the depth of about 2 inches in average 
soil, but due allowance must be made for the character- 
istics of soil where the mixture is sown. About 4 pounds 
each of the mixture should prove enough for an acre. 
Under some conditions the crop may be grazed the first 
season, but not until the plants have become firmly root- 
ed in the soil. In other instances it may be better to 
cut the nurse crop for hay and to defer the grazing until 
the second season. 

Grazing the pastures. — One great advantage result- 
ing from growing alfalfa in the mixture is the large 
amount relatively of the pasture which it will furnish. 
A second benefit arises from the safe nature of the pas- 
ture. When alfalfa is thus grazed along with other 
grass pastures the danger from bloat is virtually elim- 
inated. But when thus grazed the alfalfa would prob- 
ably be the first of these grasses to fail. The brome 
would probably be the most enduring because it is the 
most aggressive. In time it would practically take pos- 
session of the land. 

The grazing should not be too close. When grass is 
grazed down too closely the hot sun saps the moisture 
from the unprotected land, and it may also result in the 
partial destruction of the stand of grass. It may not 
be easy, however, to regulate the closeness of the de- 
pasturing, because of the great variations in the seasons. 
These pastures may usually be much benefited by top 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 359 

dressings of farmyard manure, more especially when 
these may be applied in the winter season. They may 
be also helped by discing in the spring and following the 
disc with the harrow. 

The duration of those pastures will vary with the 
conditions. There may be conditions in which it will be 
desirable to prolong them for a long term of years. Again 
there may be conditions when they should be maintained 
for not more than 2 or 3 years. Pastures of relatively 
short duration will usually prove the most satisfactory 
in semi-arid areas, because, first, of the more abundant 
grazing obtained from the fresh pastures, and, secona, 
from the benefit resulting from the frequent burial of 
humus in the soil. 

GROWING PASTURE CROPS FROM GRAIN 

Many of the farmers in the semi-arid country will 
obtain pasture from three sources. They will obtain it, 
first, from the rental of rugged and untillable lands in 
proximity to their holdings ; second, from grass pastures 
grown upon their farms, and, third, from the grain pas- 
tures grown to supplant the grass pastures. It would 
seem correct to say that the more dry the conditions are, 
the greater is the necessity for growing grass pastures, 
and the greater relatively will be the benefits obtained 
from growing them. 

Pasture from g^ain grown alone. — Winter rye stands 
at the head of the grain crops that may be grown in dry 
areas for furnishing grazing. For such a use it would 
probably be no exaggeration to say that it is more valuble 
than all other cereal grains. When sown early it may be 
grazed in the autumn, and again in the spring. Winter 
wheat when sown early may be grazed in the autumn 
when sufficiently strong, but in the spring it will not 
stand grazing as rye does, especially when a crop of grain 
is to be obtained from it the same season. It would 



360 DRY LAND FARMING 

seem reasonable to suppose that the sand vetch has an 
important mission in supplying pasture in dry areas, but 
the value of this plant for such a mission has not been 
fully determined. But any of the spring grains may be 
thus used in providing grazing, more especially when 
the weather is adverse to profitable production in the 
crop if allowed to mature. In such instances it may be 
more profitable to graze the crop and then to summer- 
fallow the land to prepare it for a crop that will follow. 
This method of procedure would be vastly ahead of that 
which allows the crop to continue to sap moisture from 
the soil as soon as it is certain that the crop has failed 
from lack of moisture, or for other reasons. 

Pasture from grains grown in combination. — More 
pasture will be obtained from grains grown in combina- 
tion than from grains grown alone. This follows from 
the fact that the maximum periods for best growth in the 
various grains differ. When several are grown together 
the period of good grazing is, therefore, more prolonged 
than if these were grown separately for the purpose of 
providing pasture. This will hold true of autumn and 
also of spring" grains, l)ut these should not be sown 
together in order to provide pasture. 

The best combination of autumn-sown grains to pro- 
vide pasture is probably winter rye and the sand vetch. 
Next to this would probably be winter wheat and the 
sand vetch. The value of this combination will depend 
in a considerable degree on the behavior of the sand vetch 
when thus grown and this has not been fully determined 
in many areas of the dry region. The spring-sown grains 
will probably furnish increased grazing in proportion as 
the number of various classes of grains are used in the 
admixture. But when determining the mixtures that 
shall be grown, the market values should be considered. 
As a rule the policy will be wise that selects the grains 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 361 

that are cheap to grow in the combination rather than 
those that are dear. 

Soils. — The soils for these crops include any soil that 
will furnish a good crop of any of the small grains that 
will furnish good pasture. These have already been 
discussed when showing how to grow the various grains 
used in providing pasture when these are grown to pro- 
vide grain. The only real differences in the methods of 
growing them are such as arise from the different amount 
of seed required. The soils that will grow grains at 
their best for seed in dry areas will also as a rule grow 
them best for pasture. Any productive clay or sandy 
loam soil will grow good pasture crops. 

Place in the rotation. — Since pasture crops from 
grain are usually grazed down early in the season, they 
may generally follow with much propriety a small-grain 
crop and in turn be followed by the bare-fallow. After the 
bulk of the grazing has been completed there will still 
be time to summer-fallow the soil the same season. Es- 
pecially is this true of the grains that have been sown the 
previous summer or autumn. 

Preparing the soil. — The soil for grain pastures is 
prepared virtually the same for the grains that provide 
the pastures as when these are grown to provide grain 
rather than pasture. The more clean and moist and fri- 
able near the surface, and the more firm that it is below, 
the higher is the adaptation of the soil for grain pastures. 
But cleanness in the soil is not nearly so essential as 
when growing these crops for grain, as the grazing pre- 
vents the major portion of the weeds from going to seed, 
and the residue that may escape the grazing are buried 
in the summer-fallowing process that usually follows. 

Sowing. — The best time for sowing a combination 
of winter rye and the sand vetch or winter wheat and 
the- sand vetch, in order to provide grazing in dry areas, 
is probably the month of June. The seed will then ger- 



363 DRY LAND FARMING 

minate readily where the bulk of the precipitation comes 
in the growing season. The grazing should be close un- 
til the autumn to lessen the draft on soil moisture. 
In areas where the precipitation comes largely in the 
autumn and winter months, these grains may be best 
sown on the arrival of the autumn rains. When grains 
are sown to provide pasture in the spring, as a rule the 
earlier they are sown the more valuable will be the 
pastures which they furnish. 

When winter rye or winter wheat are sown to pro- 
vide grazing, it is not improbable that the largest amount 
of grazing will be obtained from these grains if sown 
in June and kept closely grazed until sometime in the 
autumn, the grazing being made to cease in time to 
allow the grains to make more or less top to furnish some 
winter protection. The grazing may begin again early 
in the spring unless the crop is to be grown for fodder 
or for the grain. When grains are sown in the spring to 
provide pasture, the aim should be to sow them early. 

When the grains are sown separately or in combi- 
nations, the aim should be to sow them with the drill and 
to put them so far down that they will germinate readily. 
When sown alone, about 50 per cent, more seed may be 
sown for pasture than is sown for grain. When sown 
in combinations not less usually than 6 pecks of the mix- 
ture should be sown in the autumn and in some instances 
8 pecks would be better. The proportion of the sand or 
other vetch that may be sown can only be fully deter- 
mined by experiment. It is probable, however, that in 
but few instances, if indeed any, should less than 2 pecks 
of the vetch be sown per acre. When grains are sown 
in combination in the spring not less than 6 to 8 pecks 
should be sown. The thicker seeding is called for to 
furnish more plants for grazing. As they are usually 
grazed down so as to prevent high top growth; they draw 



HAY AND PASTURE CROPS IN DRY AREAS 363 

less heavily on moisture than plants pushing on toward 
maturity. 

Grazing the pastures. — The grazing of the summer 
or autumn sown pastures should be close until the dry 
season is about over. The amount of grazing obtained 
may not be very large in very dry seasons, but the close 
grazing lessens the drain on the moisture in the soil. 
Spring grains will probably furnish more grazing if al- 
lowed to make a good start before the grazing begins. 
Should the grazing not be wanted the grain should be 
buried at the proper season for plowing fallow land, tak- 
ing care not to let it get so far advanced before plowing 
it as to retard quick decay in the plants when buried. 



CHAPTER XV 
GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 

The absence of trees on the prairie and bench lands 
of the west gives to it something of the appearance of a 
land that may not be inhabited, in the sense that it will 
become a land of permanent homes. There is a lone- 
some look about it that does not attract, and in the win- 
ter season the lack of trees around the dwelling certainly 
adds much to the discomfort of its inmates. The apathy 
shown by many of the dwellers on the prairies in areas 
where farm crops have been grown for several years is 
in a sense almost unexplainable. Many dwellings may 
be found on northwestern prairies where the farms on 
which they stand have been cultivated for a score of 
years, and yet not a single tree or shrub has been planted 
on the farm during all that time. This course, which 
is greatly to be deplored, may arise, in many instances', 
from the too commonly cherished view that the farmer 
will get all he can for a term of years from the land which 
he tills, and he will then remove to other lands which he 
regards as more congenial. 

Can trees and fruits be grown. — The answer to this 
question is of great moment to those who dwell on the 
newly occupied lands of the dry area and also to those 
who are seeking homes on the same. On the answer will 
depend the permanency of the farming in much of the 
dry area, for one cannot imagine indefinite continuity in 
the tilling of the soil in an exposed country in the entire 
absence of trees. But why should the ability to grow 
trees be doubted? For the same reason that the success- 
ful tillage of the soil was doubted for many years. The 
fact had not been demonstrated, just as the fact has not 
been demonstrated on wide areas in the dry region as to 
whether trees can be grown. On the dry bench lands 



GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 365 

of Montana, for instance, it is scarcely possible to find a 
windbreak or a grove at the present time. Nothwith- 
Etanding, the following" may be said meanwhile with safe- 
ty : (1) Windbreaks and trees may be grown with suc- 
cess without the aid of applied wate^; (2) that the suc- 
cess in growing them will vary greatly with the condi- 
tions, and (3) there are instances in which the aid of 
applied water is essential to success. 




DRY LAND YOUNG APPLE ORCHARD. 
On Shore of Flathead Lake, Montana. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 



That windbreaks and trees may be grown on nearly 
all the tillable land of the semi-arid area may be safely 
assumed from the following: (1) Certain forms of trees, 
or at least of shrub life, grow on much of the unbroken 
area without the aid of man, as witnessed in the sage 
brush and other forms of tree life that maintain an exist- 
ence in areas where even grass cannot maintain a foot- 
hold. In some areas where the precipitation is in the 
neighborhood of 10 inches, as for instance central Oregon^ 



366 DRY LAND FARMING 

much of the land is covered with sage brush of more or 
less vigor in its growth. Where shrub life can maintain its 
hold upon the soil unaided under such conditions, there 
would seem to be no hazard in assuming that higher 
forms of shrub and even of tree life can be produced 
under judicious cultivation." Under very dry conditions 
cedars maintain an existence in the Great Basin and the 
mesquite in Arizona under conditions equally dry. (2) 
In the very few instances in which attempts have 
been made to grow trees and shrubs, a fair measure of 
success has followed where the work has been judiciously 
done. (3) It would seem safe to claim that wherever 
grain crops may be grown successfully the measure of 
the precipitation that will grow grain will make it pos- 
sible also to grow certain forms of trees and shrubs, 
where the land has been properly prepared before plant- 
ing the trees, and where proper care is given after the 
planting. 

That the results from growing trees and fruits over 
so wide an area will dififer greatly is in no way surprising. 
They are the outcome of a difference in soil, in the amount 
of the precipitation and in temperature. Nearly all of the 
soil in the entire dry area is well adapted to the growing 
of fruit. Especially where the real volcanic ash soils 
prevail is the adaptation superlative. The tendency to 
fruiting in the trees grown on these soils is remarkable. 
Of course where the precipitation is the highest, trees 
and fruits are the most easily grown in the absence of 
irrigation. For instance, in the upper valleys of the Co- 
lumbia and its branches, fruit may be readily grown in 
the absence of irrigation, but it cannot be thus grown in 
the lower valleys of the same. West of the Rocky Moun- 
tains only the more hardy fruits can be grown, whereas 
east of the same, varieties much less hardy are quite easily 
grown. 



GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 367 

In many of the dry states there are areas where trees 
and fruits cannot be grown with much or even with any 
success in the absence of irrigating waters. The areas 
are many, however, where they cannot be thus grown, 
in which the additional water called for is so little that 
for the needs of the home it may be supplied by a wind- 
mill and the accompanying tank. 

What should be sought in trees. — Trees should be 
grown primarily: (1) to furnish protection for the home; 
(2) to furnish protection for the fruits grown, and (3) to 
furnish posts for fencing. Whether the growing of trees 
for timber will ever become at all general cannot be fore- 
casted with certainty at the present time. Meanwhile it 
has little or no place in connection with dry land 
farming. 

That homes are benefited by the protection fur- 
nished by windbreaks and groves under nearly all condi- 
tions, will not be questioned. Even in sheltered nooks 
and valleys where the annoying winds are not greatly 
prevalent, the shade furnished by trees around the dwell- 
ing is very grateful. On the prairie and bench lands the 
need of trees for shelter is in a sense imperative. Of 
course, life may be lived in their absence, but when thus 
lived it is in more senses than one a life of privation. 

In wind-swept areas, as for instance in much of the 
Great Plains country, windbreaks and groves are a great 
orotection to the trees planted inside of them, or at least 
on the leeward side. The wind currents will cause fruit 
trees and shrubs exposed to them to lean too much in one 
direction. The fruit will also in the case of the larger 
trees be blown off before it has reached maturity, be- 
cause of the swaying of the limbs. In many areas, in the 
absence of such protection, fruit raising cannot be made 
a success, even when the other conditions are present 
that would lead to a successful issue. Some small fruits. 



368 DRY LAND FARMING 

as currants or gooseberries, may be grown without such 
protection, but even these will profit by its presence. 

When live stock is kept on the farms of the semi-arid 
region, as it will be in the near future, to some extent at 
least, fences will be necessary. The posts will be one of 
the most costly items of the expense where they have 
to be purchased. This at least will hold good in the 
Great Plains region, where the long distance of the trans- 
portation will prove costly. Where these may be grown, 
the cost will not be nearly so much. One acre devoted 
to growing posts should furnish several thousands of 
posts, varying, of course, with the kind. As several 
years are called for to grow trees large enough for posts, 
the homesteader should not defer planting longer than 
may be absolutely necessary. The same may be said of 
trees that are to furnish groves. 

What should be sought in fruits. — When growing 
fruits the aim should be (1) to grow only such fruits as 
are likely to succeed ; (2) to grow them mainly for the 
home ; (3) to have some water in reserve to aid in the 
proper maturing of the crop, and (4) to defer planting 
no longer than may be necessary. 

It may not be possible at present to determine the 
fruits that will grow best in the various portions of the 
dry area, for the reason that this has not been proved, 
either with reference to species or to variety, at least in 
very many areas. It is known, however, (1) that only 
hardy fruits will succeed west of the Rocky Mountains, 
save in the southern portions of the same ; (2) that vari- 
eties less hardy, but possessed of more valuable qualities, 
may be grown east of the same; (3) that in southern 
areas species will succeed that it would be unwise to try 
to grow in northern areas. It is possible, therefore, to 
select varieties to grow in a tentative way that will not 
prove disappointing when grown. 



GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 369 

In dry areas, as intimated previously, fruits should be 
grown mainly for the home. This at least should be the 
rule where the hazard is present that they may be in- 
jured during the ripening period by a shortage in the 
moisture supply. This idea, however, must not be 
pressed too far, as in certain areas of the semi-arid coun- 
try fruits are being grown with much profit without irri- 
gating waters where the rainfall is less than 18 inches. 
Parsons, of Colorado, has grow^n, with much profit, ap- 
ples, plums and cherries, with a rainfall annually of about 
14 inches. Nevertheless, the fact remains that where the 
rainfall is less than 15 inches per year many fruits can- 
not be grown so cheaply as to compete successfully in the 
general market with the same fruits grown with a rain- 
fall of not less than, say, 18 inches, or by the aid of irri- 
gation. This, however, does not justify neglecting to 
grow them for the home, even where much care must be 
exercised to insure successful work. 

The amount called for to supply the needs of the 
home is not large in any instance, hence the land devoted 
to such use need not cover more than a small area, the 
care of which will not involve great labor. The limited 
area thus involved will make it quite practicable in many 
instances to furnish enough water from a well and tank 
to insure safe maturing in the fruit, should such aid be 
called for. Many seasons it may not be needed, but even 
in very dry seasons the farmer thus prepared may secure 
a full supply of fruit. 

The wisdom of planting some fruits until a wind- 
break has been started that will furnish some protection 
for the fruits is to be questioned, but only under condi- 
tions of extreme exposure. A windbreak, however, will 
usually furnish some protection within one year of the 
time of planting. Consequently fruits that are favored 
by protection, may be planted on the lee side of a wind- 
break one year after the planting of the same. The 



370 DRY LAND FARMING 

windbreak will thus make two years' growth before 
the fruits planted contiguous to it will enter the first win- 
ter after planting. This would mean, therefore, that the 
homesteader may be ready to plant such fruits as need 
protection in exposed situations, in, say, two years from 
the time of breaking the sod where the windbreak is 
to be planted. 

Trees suitable for dry areas. — The trees that may be 
grown in dry areas may be divided into the three classes : 
(1) for windbreaks; (2) for groves, and (3) for fence 
posts. It should be remembered that suitability for any 
of these uses will vary with the conditions, insomuch that 
what is best suited to one locality may be quite unsuited 
to another. 

For windbreaks, all things considered, the common 
white or gray willow will best serve the purpose when a 
windbreak is to be grown, and especially in northern 
areas. It is hardy, of quick growth, and the branches will 
grow very closely together. Moreover, although it has 
highest adaptation for moist conditions and humid cli- 
mates, it will grow reasonably well on the bench lands 
of dry areas. It would seem correct to say that no other 
tree will furnish protection within so short a time. Wind- 
breaks may also be made by growing box-elder trees in 
a way that will cause them to branch from the ground 
upward, as has been so well exemplified by Mr. Angus 
Mackay in growing them thus at the experiment station 
at Indian Head, Sask. In some areas it is practicable to 
grow evergreen windbreaks by the judicious planting of 
and caring for the trees. Black Hills spruce of far west- 
ern South Dakota, the jack pine and the bull pine (pinus 
ponderosa) — all these are now being grown under nur- 
sery conditions. 

For groves, the green ash, the elm, the oak in more 
than one of its varieties, the box-elder, the catalpa, the 
black walnut, the black locust, the silverleaf poplar and 



GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 371 

the cedar and yellow pine may be grown. The oak, cedar 
and yellow pine are all of slow growth. Poplar trees 
grow quickly but are not usually long lived. The catal- 
pa and black locust grow^ quickly and the box-elder 
fairly so, but these are not long lived. The green ash 
grows somewhat slowly, but all in all it is one of the 
most satisfactory trees that can be grown. The catalpa 
and the black locust are not to be relied on in the Great 
Plains area north of the parallel 43 north latitude. 

For fence posts, the white willow, the diamond wil- 
low, the catalpa, the black locust and the green ash may 
all be grown, also the cedar, but the latter is of very 
slow growth. The white willow will furnish posts more 
quickly and in greater number than any of the other 
trees mentioned. They are not durable if cut and set at 
once, but will last for several years if the bark is re- 
moved and the posts are dried before planting them. If 
treated with creosote it would seem safe to infer that 
they would last still longer, and that the same would be 
true of all posts. The diamond willow is very durable 
as a post, but it does not grow so quickly nor so erectly 
and straight as the white willow. Moreover, it has high- 
er adaptation for damp ground, hence the aim should be 
to grow it with the aid of applied water, or at least on 
land with more than the usual amount of moisture. The 
catalpa and the black locust are both durable, especially 
the latter, and both grow well in the central and southern 
areas of the dry belt. The green ash will grow straight 
and tall if put in between other trees, as the poplar, the 
branches of which crowd it, as it were. If the posts are 
peeled and dried before planting, they will last for sev- 
eral years. 

It will doubtless be found quite practicable to grow 
ornamental hedges when the time comes for such plant- 
ing. The Caragana and the Russian olive have much 
adaptation for furnishing such hedges. There are also 



372 DRY LAND FARMING 

certain shrubs adapted to dry areas. These include li- 
lacs, spireas and certain kinds of roses. In view of these 
facts, the hope may be cherished that, ere many years 
shall pass, the transformations in the appearance of the 
dry country will be marked. 

Fruits suitable for dry areas. — For the purposes of 
this discussion, fruits may be divided into three classes, 
viz., small, medium and large. In addition are vines 
such as grapes. Small fruits are usually grown more 
safely and more successfully than large ones, and chiefly 
for the reason that the latter mature their fruit later, 
when, generally speaking, moisture is less plentiful. 
Nearly all varieties of small fruits mature somewhat 
early in the season. 

Among the small fruits that may be grown with more 
or less success in nearly all parts of the dry area, are 
currants, gooseberries, raspberries, strawberries and the 
sand cherry. The varieties will vary with location, hence 
it will avail but litjje to name varieties, but as hardiness 
is a matter of much importance in fruits grown in the 
Great Plains region, it may be in place to mention some 
varieties of proved hardiness. Among these are the 
common red currant, the Downing gooseberry, the Turn- 
er and the Cuthbert raspberry, and the Bederwood and 
Senator Dunlap strawberry. The sand cherry and the 
wild black currant are among the very hardiest of the 
small fruits. All, or nearly all, of these mature their 
fruits before the period of greatest drought. 

Among the intermediate fruits are the cherry, the 
plum, the peach, the apricot and the date. These, ex- 
cept the two classes first named, cannot be grown profit- 
ably in dry areas west of the Rocky Mountains. The 
hardy varieties of cherries include the Early Richmond, 
the Early May, the Montmorency and the English Mo- 
rello. Sweet cherries may be grown in many areas in 
the Inter-mountain region. The plum has special adapta- 



GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 373 

tion for being grown under hard conditions in at least 
several of its varieties. Some of these are native, even 
to areas of the Great Plains region, where the climate is 
severe. Hardy varieties include the Wild Goose, the 
Weaver, the Minor, and the Wolf and many others. In 
the milder latitudes, varieties of superior merit may be 
grown. 

Among the large fruits, the apple will always have 
first place, but pears and quinces are not unimportant. 




wr«.iT-n- 



DRY LAND APPLE ORCHARD, NEAR KALISPELL, MONTANA. 

Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 



Pears cannot be successfully grown in many localities 
in the dry area west of the Rocky Mountains, but this 
is not true of them eastward from the same. Apples of 
some varieties may be grown in even the coldest areas 
of the Great Plains, but in some localities to grow them 
with any considerable success calls for much care in 
furnishing for them adequate protection. Among the 
varieties with adaptation for those areas are the Tran- 
scendent Crab, Duchess of Oldenburg, Hibernal and Ben 



374 DRY LAND FARMING 

Davis. Varieties with adaptation for areas west of the 
Rocky Mountains include Yellow Transparent, Winesap, 
Wealthy, Gano, Alexander, Jonathan and Rome Beauty. 

The Russian Mulberry, which produces a large tree 
relatively, bears small fruit and much of it, which is of 
some value. It is drought-resistant in a marked degree. 
Grapes will not succeed in the northern areas of the Great 
Plains region, but they will succeed in portions of the 
Great Basin and in some other areas. There is no tree 
probably that will stand drought better than the olive. 
In Arizona olive trees have succeeded where the aver- 
age rainfall is not more than 10 inches. This would 
seem to indicate an important place for the cultivation 
of this fruit in southern areas of the dry belt in the 
not distant future. Other fruits, as the Chinese date 
and certain varieties of the fig, may yet come to be 
grown in the same areas. 

Making ready for planting. — When preparing for 
planting trees and fruits, careful thought should be given 
to the general plan to be followed, and also to the spe- 
cific details of the same. While in the general plan 
much will depend on the location of the steading, that 
is of the buildings, and also on the aspect of the land, 
the aim should be ta place them as nearly as possible 
at the centre of the farm in order to avoid unnecessary 
travelling while doing the work of the farm. 

In general outline, the plan for the windbreak and 
grove should be so made that the trees will protect 
the buildings on the three most exposed sides, thus 
forming three sides of a rectangle. Another way would 
be to have the trees surround the buildings in the form 
of a circle, one part of the circle being without trees on 
the leeward side. Some are content with planting trees 
on two sides of the steading, thus forming the two sides 
of a right angle on the two sides that are most exposed. 
Care should be taken not to plant the trees too close 



GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 375 

to the buildings, as they may interfere with future plans 
about the buildings, and in areas where snow is much 
liable to drift it will pile up on the buildings and in 
the yards, having been carried right over the trees, espe- 
cially in the early stages of their growth. 

The trees best suited for a windbreak should be 
planted on the outside, with one to two or three rods 
between them and the trees of the grove, as the snow 
that lifts over the windbreak will then fall in a consider- 
able degree before it reaches, the trees of the grove. 
In some instances it is advisable to have two rows of 
windbreak trees, with, say, two rods between. In these 
spaces grasses, clovers, or alfalfa may be grown, but 
not too close to the trees, the snow that blows into 
them furnishing a goodly supply of moisture. 

Some fruits may be planted along the rows and in 
between the trees, with the understanding that later 
they will be removed, as the shade of the trees will 
soon make this necessary. Plums and some small fruits 
may be thus grown. The abiding place, however, for 
the fruits, is inside of the grove. Though planted simul- 
taneously with the grove, protection will soon be fur- 
nished by the windbreak and forest trees in their upward 
growth. 

If trees for protection and for orchard uses are to 
be planted on breaking, the ground should be broken^ 
deeply one year in advance of the planting. It should 
be carefully worked on the summer-fallow plan. The 
objects sought are, first, the subduing of the sod, and, 
second, securing a supply of moisture for the subsoil. 
If the ground has been cropped previously, it should 
by all means be summer-fallowed before it is planted. 
At the end of, say, three years from the time of plant- 
ing, trees planted thus will be quite ahead of those 
planted out for four years, but on land not thus pre- 
pared at the outset. 



376 DRY LAND FARMING 

In dry areas, trees and fruits should be planted out 
in the spring. They may live though planted in the 
autumn, but in such areas, the winter is a more critical 
season for trees than the summer, hence they should be 
given the benefit of the most favorable season in which 
to make a start. The aim should be, except in the case of 
some evergreens, to plant as early in the season as 
the ground can be worked in good condition. 

• The aim should be to secure the trees and fruits 
from nurseries where the trees and fruits have been 
grown under climatic conditions not differing greatly 
from those that prevail where they are to be planted. 
This is greatly important, as if brought from a milder 
climate they will not be possessed of sufficient hardihood 
to produce the best results. 

Planting and caring for trees. — Windbreaks may be 
planted by opening a straight furrow where the willow 
cuttings are to go. In this furrow they are placed about 
3 feet apart, taking care to start them at something of 
an angle, the tops all leaning in the same direction and 
along the line of the furrow. The cuttings should be 
fresh and not more than, say, 12 inches long, and about 
the thickness of the finger. About 2 inches should pro- 
ject above the surface after the earth lias been firmly 
filled in around the cuttings. 

Evergreen windbreaks involve more labor and out- 
lay. The trees should be purchased when young. The 
nurseryman should pack them with much care. As 
soon as unpacked for planting, the roots should be kept 
submerged in what may be teamed a solution of soft 
mud until each is to be taken for planting. The ground 
is first marked off where the trees are to be set. When 
marking it the continuity of the squares should be bro- 
ken in each alternate row, which will make a more per- 
fect windbreak, but it will confine the cultivation to but 
one direction. They should have 8 feet between the 



GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 377 



rows, and a similar distance between the same in the 
line of the row. The roots are carefully spread on moist 
earth at a proper depth, and the hole is then filled and 
the earth firmed while being- filled to within 2 or 3 inches 
of the surface. The top soil should be left loose to form 
a dry mulch and should slant a little downward toward 
the tree, which should be set about 2 inches lower than 
it was previously. In very dry areas the aim should be 




DRY LAND SIX YEAR WAGNER APPLE TREES. 

Near Bonner's Ferry, Idaho. 

Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 

at the first to provide windbreaks that will grow more 
quickly than evergreens. 

When securing a windbreak from box-elder the pro- 
cedure is about as follows : Secure the seed before the 
time of frost in the autumn. When the danger to the 
young plants from frost is over, draw a straight furrow 



378 DRY LAND FARMING 

but not deeply, with the plow, scatter the seed along 
this by hand and cover to the depth of 2 inches with the 
hoe. The furrow may be made with the hoe and beside 
a stretched line if desired. The harrow should be used 
more than once until the young trees are an inch or 
two high, and then cultivation should follow as in the 
case of corn. Practically no other pruning is needed 
than to cut the young trees back a little at the end of 
the first year. 

The trees for the grove should be planted in rows, 
and, of course, inside the windbreak. The rows should 
be not closer probably than 10 feet, and the distance 
between the trees in the line of the row will vary with 
the conditions. If a quick-growing tree, as the Norway 
poplar, is planted between slow-growing trees, as the 
ash, it should be done with the intention of removing 
the quick-growing tree in due time, and allowing the 
more durable one to remain. The distance between each 
in the line of the row may be, say, 5 feet. But the dis- 
tance both ways will vary with the normal precipitation 
and the combinations when planting. The number of 
the rows should be determined by the time that may be 
given to caring for them. Ample protection and shade 
are of great price in a dry country. The planting may 
be done in. about the same manner as described above 
for evergreens. Trees not to exceed the age of two 
years should be preferred for planting. 

The white willow may be grown for posts as for 
windbreaks, and when cut will grow again. When grow- 
ing the diamond willow, proceed about as follows: 
Mark ofif the land, say, in squares, and plant the cuttings 
in these squares. They will make posts more quickly if 
trimmed to one limb, but in some instances 2 to 3 are 
left. The cultivation given may be made in both direc- 
tions. One acre planted thus should furnish from 3,000 
to 4,000 posts. 



GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 379 

For areas south from the parallel 43, the black 
locust and -some of the hardy catalpas will probably best 
supply the need when posts are to be home grown. In 
moist areas they are planted about 4 feet each way, 
but in dry areas it would seem safer to leave them more 
distant, say in squares 5 feet each way. Both are rela- 
tively quick-growing trees, and both will grow up again 
when cut. The posts from both are durable. 

The Caragana and Russian wild olive hedges may 
be made by sowing the seeds or by planting young trees 
obtained from the nursery. These may be planted 2 
to 3 feet apart, and may be made to grow close and 
"Btocky by severe pruning. Ornamental hedges may be 
grown from almost any of the willows when properly 
pruned. 

The surface cultivation given to all of these trees 
for whatsoever purpose given should be enough to keep 
a clean dust mulch continuously on the soil until the 
trees are large enough to mulch the ground with their 
leaves. This will -entail cultivation for several years, 
according to the kind of trees and the growth made by 
them. It is vain to expect trees to grow in dry areas if 
neglected after they are planted. The growth of grass 
in their midst will rob them of the moisture that they 
need. 

Planting and caring for fruits. — When planting large 
fruits in dry areas they should be given ample room. 
The necessity for this does not arise so much from 
the large size of the tree as from the need for ample root 
space in which to gather moisture. The fruit trees in 
semi-arid regions, like the grains, are more or less dwarf- 
ish in their habit of growth. But in addition to the root 
space required, there must be room to drive between 
the rows when cultivating and gathering the fruit. The 
apple trees in the orchard of E. R. Parsons, at Parkers, 
Gol., are 40 feet apart, which is a greater distance than 



380 DRY LAND FARMING 

is followed, as a rule, when planting the apple trees of 
the East, which grow so much larger. Where the rain- 
fall is more than 15 inches per year the trees may be 
planted closer, as close, probably, as 30 feet. For a 
time, crops that call for cultivation during the period of 
growth may be grown between the trees, but these 
should not come near to the tree, lest they draw upon 
the moisture that it should have. 

Medium fruits, as plums, prunes and cherries, may 
be planted in squares 20 feet apart. This will give ample 
room for proper cultivation and gathering the fruit. The 
practise is sometimes followed of planting these inter- 
mediate fruits midway between the apple trees in the 
line of the row, when the latter are planted far apart. 
Where irrigating water can be applied, the practise has 
merit, as the trees thus planted intermediate may be re- 
moved when they begin to encroach on the needs of the 
larger trees, but they should not be planted thus in 
areas of scant rainfall without good reasons for the 
step. Under such conditions every facility should be 
given for the proper cultivating of the trees by driving 
in several directions. 

Small fruits, as currants and gooseberries, when 
grown in such areas, should be not less than 8 to 10 feet 
apart each way. This will insure room to give them the 
cultivation which they need. They are one of the surest 
fruit crops that can be grown in dry areas. Strawberries 
may have from 6 to 8 feet between the rows. If grown 
on the matted row plan the runners should not be al- 
lowed to root indiscriminately, as the plants will then 
become too numerous for the moisture. 

Of the large and intermediate fruits only young 
trees should be planted, not older probably than one to 
two years. This reduces the percentage of the trees 
that may fail to grow, and it gives the grower the op- 
portunity to head them low, which is of great advantage 



GROWING TREES AND FRUITS IN DRY AREAS 381 

when picking the fruit, and the hazard to it is less from 
the blowing of strong winds. 

The cultivation must be enough to keep the ground 
clean, to keep a dust mulch on it, and to break up any 
undercrust that may form. This work may be done al- 
most entirely with the harrow and disc. Owing to the 
enormous fruitage of trees in the West, due attention 
must be given to the thinning of the fruit, if high quality 




DRY LAND SQUASH, YELLOWSTONE COUNTY, MONTANA. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 



is to be maintained. This is especially important where 
the moisture is not plentiful. In some localities fertiliza- 
tion may be called for to maintain heavy and successful 
cropping, because of the great drain on the elements of 
the soil. Due attention must also be given to pruning 
and spraying the orchards, but these and other details 
must be omitted from this discussion for want of space. 



382 DRY LAND FARMING 

Whether vegetables should or should not be grown 
in orchards and between small fruits will depend entirely 
on the conditions present. When fruits are first planted 
out it would not appear to be necessary or advantageous 
to leave all the ground unoccupied. On the other hand, 
they must not be grown to the extent of drawing upon 
the moisture that the trees or shrubs should have. 

As elsewhere intimated (see p. 453), a reserve supply 
of water may render great service to the small garden 
in the perfecting of such fruits and vegetables as do 
not mature early in the season. One application may 
be enough in many instances to mature the crop. In 
the case of orchards where irrigating waters are chiefly 
used for the irrigation of alfalfa and kindred crops, it is 
quite practicable in some instances to apply the surplus 
waters to the orchard after the fruit has been removed. 
Enough water may be thus stored in the soil and sub- 
soil to insure a crop the next year, where otherwise it 
would not succeed without the provision thus made 
through the storage of needed moisture. 



CHAPTER XVI 
ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 

Rotation means an interchange in the succession 
of the crops grown with a view to the better main- 
tenance and improvement of the soil with reference to 
chemical and physical conditions. 

The nature of the interchange will depend more or 
less on the kinds of the crops that it is desired to grow, 
and on the adaptation of the natural conditions for 
growing them. Any interchange in the succession con- 
stitutes rotation in a sense, but such interchange does 
not of necessity result in either the maintenance or im- 
provement of the conditions that govern production. 
Rotation in non-leguminous cereals only may tend to 
some extent to lessen weed production, but it does not 
in any way increase the plant food in the land. When 
cultivated crops are grown in interchange with this 
class of cereals, the cleaning of the land is much facilitat- 
ed, but the depletion of the plant food goes on unless 
one or more of the crops grown is a legume. Increase 
in production is best secured in the absence of the use 
of commercial fertilizers when the rotation is of a char- 
acter that will improve the tilth of the soil and its 
moisture-holding power, and will also increase the in- 
crement of plant food in it. To secure all of these bene- 
fits calls for the introduction of a grass or clover crop 
into the rotation, preferably the latter, which in itself 
meets all the requisites sought as stated above. 

Positive reasons for rotations in humid areas. — It is 
necessary in these for the following reasons, among 
others, that may be given : To maintain an equilibrium, 
(1) in plant food; (2) in the humus supply; (3) in the 
mechanical condition of the soil, and (4) in the food 
products grown. 



384 DRY LAND FARMING 

When one crop is grown for successive years on the 
same land in the absence of commercial fertilizers, the 
plant food in the soil gets out of balance. The crop 
grown will draw more heavily on one element of plant 
food than on another, consequently the supply of that 
element becomes too much reduced for profitable pro- 
duction. The result will not be changed though the 
other elements of plant food in the soil are present in 
sufficient quantity. For instance, should successive 
wheat crops reduce the nitrogen in the soil below a 
given quantity, full crops of wheat will not be obtained, 
though the supply of phosphoric acid and potash should 
still be ample. To maintain the equilibrium it becomes 
necessary to add nitrogen. This can be most cheaply 
and effectively done by introducing a legume into the 
rotation, as clover or alfalfa. These crops may also be 
made to add to the supply of phosphoric acid and potash 
in the cultivated portion of the soil, when they are fed 
to animals and the manure is applied to the land that 
grew them, but such increase is at the expense of these 
products in the subsoil. 

When cereals or cultivated crops only are grown 
on land the supply of the humus gradually decreases. 
Such decrease results in the loss of that mechanical con- 
dition which is most favorable to production. Such loss 
of condition may take various forms. Heavy soils be- 
come more and more impacted, insomuch that they are 
not easily plowed. When dry they become cloddy and 
call for the exercise of much labor to pulverize them 
when preparing a seed bed. On the other hand, light 
lands become lighter to the extent frequently of lifting 
with the winds. These conditions are the immediate out- 
come of too great a reduction in the humus supply, and 
the best remedy is to introduce into the rotation a grass 
or clover crop, the roots and stubbles of which will 
supply the need. 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 385 

The humus thus introduced prevents heavy clays 
with their fine soil components from adhering too closely, 
consequently they are much more easily tilled. They 
are more completely aerated, and because of their more 
friable condition the roots of plants can penetrate them 
more readily. Plants that furnish humus tend to bind 
together the particles in soils so light as to drift, by the 
many rootlets that they furnish. In this way they aid 
in preventing soil lifting. Humus furnishes food in 
some instances at least in a readily available form, as 
when the vegetable matter that furnishes it is in process 
of decay. But one of the most important, if not the most 
important benefits resulting from it is the influence 
.which it exerts on moisture in the soil. It tends to 
absorb and hold moisture, whether in its upward or 
downward movement, to the great advantage of the 
crops that are growing. 

Where rotation is not practised, the labor called 
for is too much congested at certain seasons, and at 
other seasons it is too little congested. The preparation 
of the land for sowing, to be in season, must be done 
within a limited time. The same is true of the seeding 
and harvesting of the crop, subsequently. Because of 
this the outlay for labor is larger than would otherwise 
be necessary in order to get the work done. The dififi- 
culty of getting the work done properly and in season 
would also be greatly increased. In proportion as it is 
done not in good form and out of season, the hazard 
of low yields would be present. Farming is usually safe 
and profitable in proportion as the farmer is able to do 
his own work within his own household, or at least when 
the necessity for hiring much labor is not present. 

Negative reasons for rotation in humid areas. — Rota- 
tion is called for in humid areas: (1) to prevent the 
undue accumulation of weeds ; (2) to prevent the undue 
increase of insect pests ; (3) to prevent an increase of 



386 DRY LAND FARMING 

fungous diseases, and (4) to prevent the shifting of 
soils by water and winds. Other reasons may be added 
to these but not of equal importance. 

Where but one crop is grown through successive years, 
there is an increase in the growth of many kinds of 
weeds, especially those which mature their seeds before 
this can be prevented by any of the ordinary processes 
followed in the cultivation of the land. Especially an- 
nuals and perennials may be thus allowed to multiply 
until their number becomes a menace to the growth of 
any kind of crop that may be sown. Summer-fallowing 
the land every few years may bring some relief, but in 
each instance where it is practised no crop is reaped 
that year from the land. An interchange in the suc- 
cession of cereals may bring a small measure of relief, 
since some of these occupy the land at a somewhat dif- 
ferent season from others. The most effective remedy 
for such weed intrusion is a rotation that includes cul- 
tivated crops, grass crops, and in some instances an 
occasional summer-fallow. The cultivated crops are to 
be relied on chiefly for cleaning the land. The grass 
crops, especially if of long duration, as in the case of al- 
falfa, favor the decay of weed seeds of many kinds in the 
soil, and the summer-fallow aids effectively in destroy- 
ing perennials that might not otherwise yield to less 
heroic methods of eradication. 

Insect life peculiar to certain crops cannot be easily 
mastered, in some instances at least, without an inter- 
change of crops. Such interchange leads to their de- 
struction by starving them through cutting off their 
food supply. The Hessian fly, for instance, which preys 
chiefly on winter wheat, may be banished, if not ex- 
terminated in the locality, by dropping that crop out 
of the rotation for a time. Chinch bugs, which prey 
ravenously on spring wheat, may be kept at bay, at least 
in a considerable degree, by ceasing to grow spring 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 387 

wheat for a time, and by substituting for it certain 
crops that call for cultivation. Variations in the crops 
grown in rotations tend to variations in the time and 
methods of the cultivative processes, and these in turn 
have a most disturbing influence on insect life, both in 
the embryo and subsequently. 

Rotation exercises a far reaching influence on the 
reduction of the hazard incurred by the presence of 
certain fungous diseases. In the northwestern states, 
as shown by Bolley, the continued growth of wheat on 
the same land for many years has led to the extensive 
prevalence of a fungous disease which preys upon the 
roots. The remedy proposed is an interchange in the 
crops grown. When flax wilt reaches a certain soil, in 
order to remove it flax should not be grown on the 
soil for a term of years. Likewise when potato scab 
is introduced into land, it can only be removed by re- 
fraining from growing potatoes on the same for at least 
a limited term of years. What is best, therefore, for 
keeping fungous diseases at bay, is best also, as has 
been shown, for maintaining a proper equilibrium in the 
land. 'i ^ , ; ji 

The shifting of soils by water and winds is in some 
instances very serious. The removal of soil by water is 
facilitated by fineness in the soil particles, by the ab- 
sence of humus in the soil, by shallowness in the cul- 
tivated area, and by the violence and quantity of the 
rainfall. The soils in the semi-arid belt, especially such 
as are flocculated in character, shift the most readily 
because of fineness, especially when visited by torrential 
downpours. Next to these probably are loam soils light 
in texture. Humus in the soil, especially in the form of 
vegetation not yet decayed, as previously shown, binds 
soils. The binding power of vegetation is most strikingly 
illustrated in the presence of such grasses as Russian 
brome (Bromus inermis). Shallowness in the cultiva- 



388 DRY IvAND FARMING 

tion may be remedied by man, and also the lack of hu- 
mus, but the original texture of the soil and torrential 
rains cannot be controlled by the character of the rota- 
tion. 

The shifting of the soils by winds is much influenced 
by the nature of the soil, by the character of the cultiva- 
tion and by the extent to which high winds prevail. 
Light sandy soils, in which the particles are fine, shift 
most readily with the winds. After these are the light 
spongy loams of the prairie. Clay soils are much re- 
sistant to such lifting. Soils that are much liable to 
shifting should not be given more cultivation than will 
absolutely suffice to produce a given result. Where high 
winds prevail in the spring while crops are being planted, 
the soil is frequently removed in areas with soils that 
lift to the extent of leaving the seed entirely bare. 
The best remedy is a rotation that keeps vegetation of 
some kind growing on these to the greatest extent prac- 
ticable, and of a character that will add to the vegetable 
matter in the soil by the root growth. 

Incidental benefits from rotation. — Among the inci- 
dental benefits which rotation brings are the following: 
(1) reducing the hazard from crop failure; (2) the more 
complete character of the maintenance for the house- 
hold; (3) a wider diversity in the production of live 
stock, and (4) a salutary influence on markets and mar- 
keting. 

Rotations may be broadly classed as wide and nar- 
row. They are wide when they embrace a wide diversity 
in production, and narrow when they embrace but few 
lines of production. The wider the rotation, that is, the 
larger the number of the products grown within a cer- 
tain limit, the less is the hazard from crop failure. Of 
course, it would be possible to make diversity so wide 
that the concentration of the energies would be diffused 
to the extent of putting the stamp of low attainment on 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 389 

all efforts, hut this mistake is of less frequent occur- 
rence than the opposite. When but one crop is grown, 
the stake for the year is all centered in that crop. Should 
failure be complete, the stake is lost. Should it be 
partial, the farmer is proportionately crippled. The more 
the diversity in the grain production, the more safe is 
the farming, and if the production is extended to live 
stock the farming is still safer. Such widening of the 
rotation is not inconsistent with centering the effort 
mainly on the production of one leading staple. The 
story of the one-crop system indefinitely continued is 
the same in the main in all the states. If continued 
long enough it ends in disaster. 

The maintenance furnished to the home from a 
wide rotation is very much more complete than from 
a narrow one. It makes it easily possible for the farmer 
to grow nearly all the food products which he needs, 
thus reducing proportionately the outlay. The influence 
on the accumulation is thus very marked. The person 
who centers all on the production of one crop or but a 
few crops, incurs large outlay for the support of his 
table. His profits are by that much reduced. 

A wide diversity in crop production makes possible 
a wider diversity in the production of live stock, as it 
furnishes the food called for by each class. The farming 
is thus made doubly sure, as a season that may be un- 
favorable to the production of marketable cereals may 
be favorable to the growth of fodders which may be 
turned to good account by live stock when fed to them. 
The farmer who thus diversifies is certainly pursuing 
the safest line of farming. Let the season be what it 
may, he is sure to get returns from some line or lines of 
his work. 

With increasing wideness in production comes in- 
creasing stability in the markets. This may. not apply 
so much to a product of world-wide use and of easy 



390 DRY LAND FARMING 

transportation as to one more limited in use and of 
costly transportation, because of its bulkiness. It may 
not be easy to glut the wheat market, but the potato 
market, for instance, may be glutted in a single season. 
The same is true of the market for certain kinds of per- 
ishable fruits. When all the people center on the pro- 
duction of one commodity, the tendency in the outcome 
is to disturb the market and adversely to the interests 
of the farmer. The equilibrium in marketing is also 
disturbed. 

Additional reasons for rotation in dry areas. — In dry 
areas the reasons for rotating the crops in addition to 
those given include the following: (1) to prevent the 
loss of moisture that does not enter the soil ; (2) to pre- 
vent the loss of moisture in the soil ; (3) to increase the 
moisture content in the same, and (4) to make farming 
possible and profitable. 

In such areas it is greatly important, as previously 
shown, that the precipitation which comes, whether in 
the form of snow or rain, shall in due time enter the soil 
rather than run away over the surface. The various 
methods which may be resorted to in order to accomplish 
this have already been discussed (see p. 123). The great 
importance of prevent|ing waste from this source is 
emphasized at this time. All the operations relating to 
tillage should, therefore, be conducted with this thought 
in mind. In humid areas it is different. In these there 
are times when the removal of the waters of precipita- 
tion is more important than their retention, as, for in- 
stance, when they are present in excess, but even when 
thus present removal through drainage beneath the sur- 
face is much preferable to removal through open drains. 
Rotation facilitates the entrance of water into the soil 
in dry areas by the necessity which exists for intro- 
ducing into it frequently crops that call for frequent 
stirring of the surface soil, and an occasional deep stir- 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 391 

ring of the same, that the water that falls may enter it 
readily, even though it should fall in large volume. 
Grass crops are the least favorable to the entrance of 
water into the soil from above. Alfalfa is in some de- 
gree an exception, because of the discing that is given 
to the crop in the springtime. 

The character of the rotation exerts a very marked 
influence on the retention of moisture in the soil that is 
already present in the same. When the small cereals 
follow each other in close succession they not only draw 
proportionately on the soil moisture to perfect their 
growth, but there is no means of preventing the sub- 
soil moisture from escaping into the air subsequent 
to the cessation of the use of the harrow on the crop. 
The more frequently that a fallow or a cultivated crop, 
therefore, can be introduced into the rotation, the more 
perfectly will the moisture be conserved in the soil. Be- 
cause of the increase in the power in the soil to hold 
moisture as a result of putting humus into it, the intro- 
duction of humus occasionally in some form should never 
be lost sight of. The ability of the soil, therefore, to 
hold moisture in these areas will be proportionate: (1) 
to the infrequency with which the cereal crops are 
grown ; (2) to the frequency with which cultivated crops 
are grown, and (3) to the increase in the humus content 
in the soil. 

These agencies will also have an influence on the 
increase or decrease of the moisture content in the soil. 
The summer-fallow is probably the most potent agency 
that can be introduced in the line of cultivation to in- 
crease the moisture content of the soil. The increase 
which it may thus exert may be in itself a sufficient rea- 
son for introducing the summer-fallow. Next in potency 
in this respect is probably deep plowing and subsoiling. 
The alfalfa crop calls for such deep plowing when pre- 
paring the seed bed for it, and when the ground is broken 



392 DRY LAND FARMING 

up on which it grew, the percolation following in the 
line of the decayed roots adds to the moisture content 
of the soil. A rotation, therefore, that will bring about 
such a result should be the aim. The more that it calls 
for the judicious stirring of the surface soil, the more 
is the moisture likely to be increased in the soil. 

In dry areas, rotation of some kind is absolutely 
necessary to make farming profitable. Under all condi- 
tions this may not be absolutely necessary in humid 
areas. In these the farmer may begin with virgin soil. 
He may grow successive crops of the same kind on the 
same, for a term of years, at a profit. The duration of 
such profitable production will depend on the original 
fertility of the land and on the skill or lack of skill 
which he shows in taking fertility out quickly or slowly 
by the large or small crops which he grows. It is dif- 
ferent with the farmer in the semi-arid region. He must 
have regard also to the moisture content in the soil. 
Without some kind of a rotation he cannot adequately 
retain moisture enough to enable him to grow crops. At 
the very outset, therefore, he must have some regard to 
rotation. 

Rotation by alternating fallow and grain. — The dis- 
cussion of this question will ask: (1) how such rota- 
tion is conducted ; (2) the benefit emanating therefrom ; 
(3) the area for the same, and (4) the objections that 
may be ofifered to it. 

This rotation grows grain each alternate year, and 
summer-fallows the land in each of the years that inter- 
vene. Any kind of cereal may be thus grown which it 
may be desired to grow. Such a rotation is especially 
well adapted to growing winter wheat, since it virtually 
insures the germination of the seed even in a dry year 
and at the season when the crop may be best sown. No 
other kind of preparation can be given to the land that 
will so well secure this end. A cultivated crop should 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 393 

not be alternated with the summer-fallow, since the 
moisture that has been stored by the fallowing process 
is more needed by the cereal crops that are grown in the 
rotation. A crop of any of the cereals is not assured in 
the absence of stored moisture, whereas a cultivated crop, 
as corn, is much more certain under such conditions. 

The benefits from such a rotation include the fol- 
lowing: (1) It makes it possible to grow good yielding 
grain crops in areas wdiere the moisture is so low that 
these could not be obtained in any other way; (2) it 
makes it easily possible to maintain cleanliness in the 
land ; (3) it makes it possible to furnish supplemental 
forage where it could not otherwise be obtained. In 
some areas the precipitation is so light that grain crops 
could not be grown by any other system of farming that 
could be followed. The choice in these is between no 
grain crop and the summer-fallow. Where this rotation 
is practised land may be kept absolutely clean. True, 
grain may volunteer, but the summer-fallow makes it 
possible to destroy it (see p. 119). In some areas where 
the seasons are very short, so short that grain may not 
be depended on to ripen, .it may be devoted to forage 
uses. 

This rotation may be necessary in many portions 
of the dry belt. If grain is to be grown it may be neces- 
sary where the rainfall is too little to grow a crop of 
grain after a cultivated crop. The difference in the de- 
gree of the precipitation that will make grain succeed 
on fallow land and fail when sown after cultivated land 
has not been well worked out, but such a difference does 
doubtless exist. As expressed in inches, however, the 
difference may not be very great. Where the precipita- 
tion is less than, say, 8 inches on the average, the sum- 
mer-fallow would seem to be a necessity where crops of 
any kind of grain are to be grown. This rotation is 
practised where the rainfall is considerably greater than 



394 DRY LAND FARMING 

has been stated, even where it is as high as 15 inches 
and more per year. It is not absolutely necessary, how- 
ever, to adhere to such a rotation as a rule, in order to 
grow good grain crops with a rainfall above 10 inches, 
providing the climatic conditions will admit of growing 
cultivated crops. 

The objections that may be urged against this rota- 
tion are: (1) that it reduces the fertility of the land; (2) 
that it leads to the depletion of the humus supply, and 
(3) that it encourages blowing in light soils. That it 
does lower the supply of plant food in the soil cannot be 
questioned. It lowers it by the amount that is taken 
out by the crop grown, for this system gives nothing 
back in return. That it lowers the amount of available 
fertility would also seem true, for, as the gross amount 
of fertility in the soil becomes reduced, it would seem 
reasonable to conclude that the relative amount re- 
leased would become less and less from year to year. 
The store of plant food, however, in some of those west- 
ern soils is so great that in some instances they have 
produced crops thus covering a period of not less than 
40 years, without any diminution in the yields. Because 
of this some farmers have concluded that so it will be 
always, but the end will inevitably be reached. The 
day will come when the yields will wane. 

What has been said about waning fertility will apply 
equally to the depletion in humus. It will probably apply 
even in a greater degree, since the supply of humus in 
these soils was less bountiful at the first than the supply 
of plant food. This system only puts back the humus 
furnished by the stubbles, and it consumes humus rapid- 
ly while the fallowing is being done. With decrease in 
humus comes proportionate decrease in the moisture- 
holding power of the soil, and this in semi-arid regions 
will in time work serious harm. 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 395 

This system facilitates the blowing of soils where 
they are so light as to lift with the winds, because of 
the loose condition in which they keep them on the sur- 
face, for so large a part of the season. Owing to the 
fine condition in which the particles are kept they are 
carried away more readily by torrential rains, should 
they come. It is so far fortunate, however, that the 
average far western soil does not lift so readily with 
the wind as the soils that cover areas of the prairie that 
lie farther eastward. 

Rotation by alternating cultivated crops and grain. — 
This method of growing crops substitutes a cultivated 
crop for the summer-fallow. It will be observed that it 
does not widen the rotation. The discussion will con- 
sider: (1) how such a rotation is conducted; (2) the 
benefits resulting therefrom ; (3) the area where it is to 
be practised and the objections to such a rotation. 

Any kind of a grain crop may be grown in this rota- 
tion that may be desired, providing it can be produced 
under the climatic conditions. The cultivated crop may 
be of any character that will involve a sufficiency of cul- 
tivation while it is growing to result in the retention of 
soil moisture to the greatest extent practicable. The 
crops thus grown more commonly include corn, pota- 
toes, field beans and field roots. Of these corn will be 
grown to a greater extent, probably, than all the others 
combined, a result which arises, first, from the relatively 
small amount of hand labor involved in growing it, from 
the large return in proportion to the labor, and from the 
fact that it furnishes food for live stock larger in quantity 
from a given area as a rule than can be obtained from 
any other plant. Of course, the cultivated crop is grown 
one year in the rotation and is followed by the grain 
crop the next season. 

The benefits from such a rotation include, first, a 
return from the land every year, which, under normal 



396 DRY LAND FARMING 

conditions, will yield some profit to the grower, and, 
second, the furnishing of food for animals that may be 
kept upon the farm, such as can be obtained from no 
other source. The bare-fallow alternating with grain 
can only give one crop in two years, whereas by this 
system, as intimated, a crop is obtained every year. 

The area where this system of cropping may be 
practised covers a very large amount of the semi-arid 
belt, but it cannot be practised everywhere, because of 
the shortage that may be present in the moisture. This 
system of cropping will probably conserve moisture 
about as effectively as the bare-fallow, but it draws more 
heavily on the moisture content in the soil, since it 
draws on it every year, where, by the other system, it 
is drawn upon only once in two years. It is clear, there- 
fore, that more moisture will be used when the alterna- 
tion in the cropping includes a cultivated crop. But how 
much more moisture will be called for in the one rota- 
tion as compared with the other, has not been worked 
out as yet. It would seem safe to say, however, that 
on average soils such a rotation could be conducted 
where the annual rainfall was not less than, say, 12 to 
15 inches. 

To this system two objections may be urged. First, 
it draws heavily on the plant food and humus in the soil, 
and, second, it draws so heavily on moisture that the 
grain crops grown must soon suffer from a shortage in 
plant food and also in moisture. The first objection is 
valid. The second is only partially so. In time such a 
rotation would deplete the plant food in the soil to 
the extent of reducing crop yields. Whether reduction 
would follow from a shortage in moisture will depend, 
first, on the total amount of the precipitation, and, second, 
on the proportion of this that it is possible to conserve. 
A crop of corn, for instance, will use as much moisture 
in many instances as a crop of wheat, but it does not 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 397 

follow that it leaves the soil as much lacking in moisture 
as the wheat. It draws more of the moisture used in 
growing it from a deeper area than wheat, hence it 
draws less heavily on moisture near the surface. Mois- 
ture is also conserved when growing the corn, where- 
as it is not so conserved when growing wheat. Nothing 
can be done further to conserve it after the last harrow- 
ing has been given to the wheat. Moreover, the broad 
leaves of the corn furnish shade to the ground, and in 
doing so reduce the evaporation. It follows, therefore, 
that corn will leave much more moisture in the soil than 
small grain, as experiment has shown, but it will be 
less than the bare-fallow by the amount that it has 
taken to grow it. In areas where humus is abundantly 
present and the rainfall is fairly liberal, larger yields of 
grain may usually be expected after grain than after 
the bare-fallow, as an excess of straw is more liable to 
be present after the cultivated crop. Such excess in the 
straw, however, is less liable to occur on the soils of the 
far west than on the prairies of the eastern portion of the 
dry belt. But where the rainfall is not quite enough to 
grow a crop each year as outlined, one crop only should 
be sought in two years. 

Rotation which combines fallow and cultivated 
crops. — The discussion of this rotation will also con- 
sider: (1) how it is conducted; (2) the benefits result- 
ing therefrom ; (3) the area where it is to be sought, and 
(4) the objections thereto. 

The fallow and cultivated crop in each instance is 
followed by a crop of small grain, and these crops al- 
ternate. The rotation, therefore, covers four years. The 
order in the same is as follows : Summer-fallow, small 
grain, cultivated crop and small grain. This rotation 
grows three crops in the four years. Where it can 
be adopted, therefore, it is more profitable than the rota- 
tion which gives but one crop in two years. It is easily 



398 DRY LAND FARMING 

feasible to so divide any farm, large or small, that the 
succession involved in this rotation may be conducted 
on it. Suppose, for instance, that the farm has in it 
160 acres. If 40 acres are set aside for hay or pasture, 
120 acres will be left for cropping. If the 120 acres are 
divided into four equal parts, the rotation may be intro- 
duced as outlined. In this rotation 60 acres will be 
cultivated each year by the fallow or by the cultivated 
crop, and the remaining 60 acres will be devoted to the 
growing of cereal crops. On one-half of the cultivated 
area a crop will also be grown, hence but one-fourth of 
the land that is cultivated from year to year will be idle. 
This rotation is attended with the following benefits: 
(1) it keeps the land in a clean condition ; (2) it makes 
practicable the growing of fodder on the farm, as corn for 
instance ; (3) it is not only not antagonistic to a wider 
rotation, but is helpful to the same, since it makes pro- 
vision for the growing of hay and pasture, and to any 
extent that may be desired, as the rotation is practicable 
on any residue of the land left after the hay and pasture 
land is set aside, providing the said residue is divided 
into four parts. 

This rotation will probably be extensively adopted 
in the semi-arid country, since it favors the introduction 
of live stock onto the farms. It cannot be successfully 
practised on so small an amount of precipitation as will 
bring a crop of small grain once in two years, on the 
summer-fallow plan, but it can be practised on a rain- 
fall somewhat less than will suffice to grow corn or the 
other cultivated crop in combination with small grain 
each alternate year. In this rotation, where winter wheat 
may be successfully grown, it should be made to come 
after the bare-fallow, and other spring crops after the 
cultivated crop. 

The objections to it include the following: (1) it 
makes no provision directly for putting back on the land 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 399 

plant food or humus removed by the successive crops 
that are grown; (2) it involves a considerable amount 
of labor in cultivating so large a proportion of the land 
each year; (3) it involves the fencing of at least that 
portion of the land devoted to the growing of pasture. 
In reply to these objections' it may be answered: (1) 
that the system can be easily so modified as to bring 
fertility and humus to the land. This can be accom- 
plished by changing at intervals the portions devoted to 
the growing of hay and pasture. These may be devoted 
to the crops of the rotation, and hay and pasture may 
be grown for a time on the other portion of the land. 
The ends thus sought will be most completely realized 
when the hay and pasture plants are of the leguminous 
order. (3) The fencing to be erected cannot be avoided 
where live stock are to be kept on the arable farm, what- 
soever may be the rotation. 

Rotations which include grass crops. — As in the pre- 
ceding rotations, there will be discussed the following 
under this sub-head: (1) how these may be conducted; 
(2) the benefits from so conducting them ; (3) the area 
for the same, and (4) the objections to these methods. 

It will be observed that this rotation includes one 
or more grass crops, of course including the clovers 
where they may be grown with success and also alfalfa. 
The various clover crops cannot be grown at their best in 
semi-arid areas, as alread}^ intimated, hence it is not 
probable that they will ever be given an important place 
in the rotation in these areas unless under exceptionally 
favorable conditions. The grass rotation plants will in- 
clude brome grass, western rye, and, in some places that 
are exceptionally favored with moisture, timothy and 
red top. It is almost certain, however, that alfalfa will 
be grown to a greater extent as the grass crop of the 
rotation than any other plant. 



400 DRY LAND FARMING 

It is not possible to fix definitely the order of such 
a rotation where the conditions vary so much. The 
grass crop may be added to each of the rotations given 
above, but in none of them will it fit in so well as with 
the rotation that combines fallow with a cultivated crop. 
The order would be summer-fallow, small grain, a cul- 
tivated crop, small grain and the grass crop. The term 
of years that the land should thus be laid down to grass 
or alfalfa will vary with the conditions. It is preferably 
long rather than short, because of the hazard of failure 
in getting a stand of grasses in years that are unusually 
dry. When the grass or alfalfa crop is broken up, the 
cropping to small grains in alternation with cultivation 
may be prolonged as desired. 

The benefits from such a rotation are unquestioned. 
It insures the maintenance of a supply of humus which 
is so necessary to high production, more especially in dry 
areas. It cannot be so well supplied in any other way. 
It also opens up the way for the maintenance of live 
stock on the farm. It is not to be expected that the 
grazing in dry areas will be so much as in those that are 
moist, and yet a certain amount of pasture land is neces- 
sary where much live stock is kept. When alfalfa is the 
grass crop grown, it will also furnish nitrogen to the 
soil in liberal degree, and will in this way contribute 
beneficently to the maintenance of fertility. 

The area for such a rotation will virtually embrace 
all the semi-arid country, but the necessity for it will 
not be so great in all parts. In much of the arid region 
rugged lands are contiguous to the farm lands. These 
may be made to furnish all the pasture called for. Not- 
withstanding, the necessity for hay still continues, and it 
cannot be better supplied than by growing alfalfa as a 
rotation crop. This means that this crop may be made 
not only to furnish hay, but that it may also be made 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 401 

to furnish humus and nitrogen in addition in all parts 
of the dry area. 

But few objections can be offered to this rotation. 
When the virgin lands of the prairie are first broken up 
the grass roots are present in the soil to the extent of 
hindering production. The hindrance is felt in the slow 
decay of the vegetable matter. This means that in a 
dry year less production will be obtained from such 
lands than from the same when the original grasses have 
reached a more advanced stage of decay. Because of this 
it may be Avise, and usually it is wise, to try to secure 
several crops of small grain from these lands before they 
are laid down to grass in any form. The objection that 
introducing grasses involves the introduction of fencing, 
is not well taken, for live stock cannot be so well kept in 
the arid country, or indeed in any country, in the absence 
of a certain amount of fencing. 

Rotation that should not be followed. — The discus- 
sion of this question will consider: (1) growing small 
grains in succession ; (3) growing pastures for many 
successive years ; (3) growing alfalfa for many succes- 
sive years, and (4) growing small grains in any rotation 
which does not bring them after a cultivated crop. 

The mistake of growing small grains in succession 
in dry areas should be avoided. This does not mean that 
the method of growing them thus will not succeed in 
some instances, as when the precipitation is unusually 
large. But an abnormally large precipitation can never 
be forecasted. The Montana Experiment Station has 
shown conclusively that a good crop is never assured 
under such conditions of growth, and that a limited term 
of years of such cropping will result in the production 
of crops that are not worth harvesting. Adherence to 
this method of crop production, especially along the 
eastern side of the semi-arid belt, has unquestionably 



402 DRY LAND FARMING 

involved the several states concerned in a loss of several 
millions of dollars annually. 

Many farmers are apparently imbued with the idea 
that it is impossible to secure as large profits from one 
cereal crop grown every alternate year as from annual 
crops of the same grown every year. Whether this can 
or cannot be done depends entirely on the yields. Ex- 
perience has shown that where the rainfall is not more 
than 15 inches annually more bushels of small grain 
will be obtained in a term of years by taking one crop 
from the soil in two years than from cropping the land 
every year. Though the yields should be the same the 
profits from growing the one crop in two years will be 
greater because of the less expense involved in grow- 
ing it. 

Where the rainfall is more than 15 inches annually, 
and less than 20 inches, it may be legitimate to grow 
several grain crops in succession on land when broken 
from the virgin prairie. But even in these areas the 
process should not be long continued because of the 
drain that such a system involves on the fertility and 
also on the humus supply in the land. 

While pastures should as a rule be continued for a 
longer period than two years, they should seldom be 
made permanent in dry areas. The objections to such 
permanency are: (1) the necessity that exists for renew- 
ing the humus supply in the land ; (2). the difficulty found 
in maintaining high relative production in such pastures, 
and (3) the tendency in such a system to lessen the 
store of moisture in the soil and especially in the sub- 
soil. It is important, therefore, that such pastures will 
not be grazed for too long a term of years. 

On arable farms the aim should be to avoid main- 
taining alfalfa crops during a long term of years. This 
does not follow from any real difficulty in maintaining 
maximum production in the alfalfa crops, but rather 



ROTATION IN DRY AREAS 403 

from the advantage that conies to the grain crops that 
follow the alfalfa through the supply of plant food and 
humus which it brings to the land. To this rule, how- 
ever, there may be many exceptions. The wisdom of 
growing small-grain crops as a rule only after cultivated 
crops, or fallow, has been amply justified by experience. 
To this, however, there are some exceptions. Flax, as 
has been shown, may come after grass with reasonable 
certainty in the results when properly grown. Should 
the -autumn rains be heavy, an occurrence that may hap- 
pen, although it is rare in the semi-arid country, in some 
areas but not in all, it would be legitimate to follow 
small grain with small grain. 



CHAPTER XVII 

MAINTAINING FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN 

DRY AREAS 

When the settler locates on western soils, the 
thought which dominates his mind and directs his efforts 
is how to get marketable crops to grow. As long as he 
is able to accomplish this it is difficult to impress him 
with the thought that the time will surely come when 
such a system of cropping will lead to the impoverish- 
ment of the land. That such a result will follow if crops 
are taken from the land and sold in successive years for 
an indefinite period cannot be questioned. The land 
will stand such cropping for a much longer period in 
dry than in humid areas, because of the greater store 
of plant food in the soil, and because of the less loss 
of the same in crop production. The farmer, therefore, 
in dry areas, must give careful attention to the main- 
tenance of fertility in the soil, if he is to maintain maxi- 
mum production. He must also give equally careful at- 
tention to the maintenance of the humus supply in the 
soil, in order to maintain it in a proper physical condi- 
tion, and to increase its moisture-holding power. The 
system of alternate cropping and summer-fallowing so 
commonly advocated is decidedly unfavorable to the 
maintenance of either in the absence of the renewal of 
fertility and humus. 

In the present discussion, fertility, of course, means 
plant food, and especially the three essential elements 
of plant food. No time will be spent in discussing the 
question as to what fertility in the abstract means. The 
author who claims that ''fertility is not something that 
inheres in the soil" is welcome to all the comfort he can 
get out of so stupid a definition. Likewise the scientist 
who claims that ''fertility is what the soil is capable of 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 405 

doing under the best possible conditions" is welcome to 
all the comfort he can get from making fertility a thing 
so intangible. If the elements of fertility — phosphate, 
potash and lime — are not a part of the soil, what are they 
a part of? Humus in the discussion, of course, means 
organic, that is, vegetable matter, whatever may be its 
stage of decay. 

The soils are usually fertile. — The richness of the 
soils in dry areas in all the essential elements of plant 
food is owing chiefly: (1) to the inherent richness of 
the soil particles; (2) to the similarity of the subsoil to 
the soil in its essential constituents ; (3) to the little loss 
of fertility by leaching, and (4) to the extent to which 
the soil has been moved by rodents. 

The richness of the soil particles is owing chiefly 
to the source from which they have come (see p. 62). 
This inherent richness applies largely to food that is 
not yet available. This reserve food is unlocked grad- 
ually by the cultivation given and through other 
agencies, hence the ability of these soils to maintain an 
undiminished production for a long term of years. 

It cannot be said, of course, that the subsoil is in 
all instances similar to the surface soil, but in many 
instances it is. Because of this the beneficial descent 
and ascent of soil moisture is facilitated, the feeding 
ground for the roots of plants is relatively enlarged and 
the removal of plant food to the surface soil from below 
is made very easy and sure. This explains why it is 
possible to grow grain on lands for long periods which 
increase rather than decrease in their producing power. 

On nearly all soils in dry areas the loss from leaching 
is so small that it is not to be considered. The excep- 
tions to this are rare. There is, therefore, virtually no 
loss of fertility from this source, which is a never-end- 
ing source of loss in humid areas. This means that 
inert fertility is made available slowly and that it is 



406 DRY LAND FARMING 

not removed from the soil save as it is taken up by the 
crops where proper methods of cultivation are followed. 
In humid areas, the loss from the leaching of fertility 
down through the soil in the form of nitrates is present 
more or less every season. This loss is proportionate to 
the abundance of the nitrates, and to the superabun- 
dance of the water in the soil. Some fertility may be 
removed through the washing of the soil. The loss from 
this source may be felt more or less on soils that have 
much slope, providing these are cultivated. On fairly 
level lands this may be almost entirely prevented by a 
judicious system of tillage (see p. 01 ). 

Rodents have doubtless exercised an important influ- 
ence on the increase of the available fertility in dry 
areas by the extent to which they have burrowed into 
the soil and carried it to the surface. The channels 
thus made in the process of burrowing were followed 
by air and moisture and these have aided in the reduc- 
tion of the soil. The combined influence of sun and rain 
furthered decay in the soil that was brought to the sur- 
face. This decay was favorable to the growth of plants, 
which in turn added to the available fertility. This 
process has been going on for long centuries, hence 
the influence of these toilers has doubtless been material 
in the liberation of soil fertility. 

The loss of fertility. — Many claim that the supply, 
of fertility in dry areas will never be lost. This view 
is doubtless based on the observation that grain crops 
have been grown on the same land for periods of, say, 25 
to nearly 50 years without any diminution in the yields, 
and in the absence of any form of fertilization other 
than that furnished by the straw of the grain crop or 
crops that were grown upon the land. These results 
have been obtained in Utah and also in some other 
parts of the semi-arid belt. This, however, only demon- 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 407 

strates that the supply of fertility in these soils is very 
great rather than that it is inexhaustible. 

Every non-leguminous crop grown upon the soil 
and sold from it carries away from the soil a certain 
proportion of the elements of fertility essential to plant 
growth. This means that the residue left in the soil 
and subsoil is reduced by the amount removed in the 
crop grown. It follows, therefore, by logical sequence, 
that in time the elements of fertility in the soil will be 
so reduced that it will be rendered incapable of produc- 
ing a profitable return. The time when this result will 
be reached will depend, first, upon the crop grown, and, 
second, upon the abundance of the crop yields. The 
more abundant the crop yields, the more rapid will be 
the depletion in the fertility. It has been found that 
to grow a bushel of wheat and the straw that it takes 
to produce it, removes l}i pounds of nitrogen from the 
soil, 1 pound of phosphoric acid and 1 4-5 pounds of pot- 
ash. To grow a 2t)-bushel crop w^ill remove twenty 
times as much of these elements ; hence, if both straw 
and grain are removed, the fertility left in the soil is 
reduced by the amounts as calculated. Such a heavy 
drain on soil fertility in the absence of any fertilization 
must in time so deplete the store of plant food in any 
soil, howsoever rich it may be in plant food originally, 
that it w411 cease to grow profitable crops. In certain 
areas in California where grain crops w'ere profitably 
grown for a generation, during recent years they have 
fallen below the limit of profitable production in the 
absence of fertilization. Even though production by 
such a system should be profitable for tw^o or even three 
generations, the day of .reckoning will assuredly come 
because of the low yields obtained. 

The loss of plant food is less rapid in dr}' than in 
humid areas. This arises, first, from the smaller growth 
of straw produced 1)y semi-arid soils ; second, bv the 



408 DRY LAND FARMING 

almost entire absence of loss by leaching, and, third, 
because when moisture is absent the liberation of fer- 
tility practically ceases. In humid areas the fertility 
is continually drawn upon during the period of growth, 
if not in growing crops in growing weeds. In dry areas 
growth is practically at a standstill during a consid- 
erable portion of the growing season. The less rapid 
loss of plant food in the soil in such dry areas is strik- 
ingly shown in the longer period during which the 
effects of farmyard manure are traceable when applied 
to the soil. In many instances these are not traceable 
in humid areas beyond three years, whereas they are 
traceable in dry areas for at least twice as long. 

The restoration of fertility in dry areas is much 
more difficult than in humid areas. This follows: 

(1) From the relatively small growth of vegetable mat- 
ters produced for burial in the soil. In humid areas, 
weed growth is more constant, and two or three crops 
of green substance may be grown and buried in one 
season. Such production in dry areas is much less. (2) 
From the less extent to which legumes may be grown 
on a given piece of land. These, of course, are the 
most important restorers of fertility. (3) From the 
more limited supply of the farm fertilizers that are on 
hand, resulting from the less bulky crop production. 
(4) From the slower action of applied commercial fer- 
tilizers. These facts should be carefully weighed by 
those engaged in dry farming. 

Sources of fertility. — The sources of fertility in dry 
areas include: (1) Food furnished directly by the soil; 

(2) food carried up by the subsoil ; (3) food liberated by 
cultivation, and (4) food furnished by legumes. No 
one of these sources is unimportant. 

The soil is beyond all comparison one of the most 
important sources of plant food. The larger portion 
of the food exists in the soil in the inert form, and is 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 409 

slowly unlocked or made available by the processes 
of cultivation. This is one reason why judicious culti- 
vation is so important in dry areas. The difference be- 
tween poor soils and soils that are rich, is mainly a 
difference in the food elements that these soils contain 
and chiefly in the inert form. It is fortunate that these 
stores are made available chiefly through the processes 
of cultivation. AVere it otherwise, there would be a 
great waste of fertility before it could be utilized. But 
there are certain forms of bacteria in the soil that have 
the power of gathering nitrogen from the air, and con- 
verting it into forms suitable for the needs of plants. 
According to Widtsoe these bacteria utilize for their 
life processes the organic matter of the soil. To work 
effectively they require a soil rich in lime, fairly dry and 
warm and well aerated. Fortunately these conditions 
are all met on the dry farms of the semi-arid west. 

The food carried up from the subsoil exercises an 
important influence on fertility in semi-arid areas. The 
soluble materials in arid areas go down to the lower 
limit of moisture penetration. The soil and subsoil are 
thus made of equal porosity. Because of the facility 
with which air may penetrate the soil and subsoil mass, 
the subsoils are in a sense weathered and made suit- 
able for furnishing available plant nutrition to great 
depths. In some instances in the semi-arid region, the 
soil and subsoil are not very different from the surface 
soil down to the distance of many feet, hence in these 
deep plowing does not bring up unweathered soil as it 
does in dry areas, and it enlarges at the same time the 
reservoir for storing water. It has been claimed, and 
probably correctly, that the relative fertility of different 
areas in the semi-arid belt depends more on the nature 
of the subsoil than of the surface ^soil. In semi-arid 
regions the roots of plants go to stored water, and the 
latter does not need to be brought to the surface. 



410 DRY LAND FARMING 

The limit of root penetration in the crop, therefore, 
is an important factor when conducting experiments in 
dry areas. But the upward movement of the natural 
precipitation in the soil is also an important factor 
in determining its producing power. The plant food 
dissolved in the downward movement of soil moisture 
is again carried upward to the domain where it may be 
utilized by growing plants. In this way the fertility of 
the surface soil is continually reinforced by plant foo<l 
carried up from the subsoil. In humid areas much of 
the food thus dissolved and carried down to the surface 
soil goes out in the drainage water. 

The proper cultivation of the soil tends to liberate 
plant food in the same. The frequency with which the 
soil is stirred in the summer-fallow and in growing a 
cultivated crop favors such liberation of fertility. It 
greatly facilitates growth in the crop sown on such land, 
but this influence is secondary to that exerted by the 
moisture conserved. In humid areas much of the fer- 
tility thus liberated may be carried down and out into 
the drainage water, but in dry areas this very seldom 
occurs. 

The growing of legumes is one of the most effective 
methods by which fertility may be increased in dry 
soils. The supply of available fertility may be increased 
by cultivation, by the amount carried in solution through 
capillarity, and from the action of certain bacteria work- 
ing in the organic matter in the soil, but such increase 
relates almost entirely to temporary increase, which 
means a reduction of the total amount left in the soil. 
The increase through growing legumes is a positive 
addition to the fertility of the soil, at least with refer- 
ence to its nitrogen content. 

How to increase fertility. — Fertility in dry areas 
may be increased: *(1) by growing legumes; (2) by ap- 
plying farm manures, and (3) by applying artificial fer- 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 411 

tilizers. Fertility already in the soil may be made 
available by various processes. 

Soils in dry areas are usually rich in mineral mat- 
ters, hence they do not meanwhile call for additional 
supplies of phosphate and potash, but they are frequently 
deficient in nitrogen and humus. These may be best 
supplied by legumes (see chapter XIII). They take nitro- 
gen from the air in the process of growth, and much of 
what has been stored in the soil feeds the crops that 
follow, at least for a time, usually for 2 or 3 years in 
humid climates, and frequently it may be for a longer 
term in dry areas. If the crops are not buried but are 
harvested and fed or grazed ofif, such enrichm'ent is 
without cost to the grower of these crops. Whether 
the entire crop should be buried will depend more on 
the extent to which the soil needs vegetable matter than 
on the extent to which it needs fertilization. Humus 
may frequently be supplied more cheaply by non-legu- 
minous plants. In areas where the header is used in 
harvesting wheat grown on fallowed land in alternate 
years, the humus thus supplied does not cost anything. 
Grazing off the crop grown, especially when leguminous 
in nature, brings enrichment to the land in a very effect- 
ive form. The pea crop properly grown is one of the 
best for such a use. 

Farmyard manure is very beneficial to arid soils 
when properly applied, but it may be so applied as to 
do harm, as when, for instance, large quantities are 
buried in the soil at one time. When dry weather fol- 
lows, such a soil is kept too open and will not suffi- 
ciently hold moisture. It should, therefore, be applied 
in quantities quite moderate, not more usually than ten 
tons to the acre, and frequently considerably less will 
be better. It should be applied when practicable with 
the manure spreader. If the manure is disced in before 
the land is plowed, its action will usually be quicker 



413 DRY LAND FARMING. 

than when not so managed. Farm manure not only 
brings plant food to the soil, but it increases the vege- 
table mold in the same, and it facilitates the liberation 
of fertility through chemical agency. The beneficial 
effects of manure on the soil and crops are present for 
a much longer period in dry than in humid areas, be- 
cause of its slower decay in the soil. When live stock 
are kept in any considerable number on dry farms, the 
maintenance of fertility on these will not be a very 
serious question. 

The use of artificial fertilizers in dry areas will not 
assume large proportions for many years to come, and 
for the reason that the expense incurred would probably 
be greater than the benefit accruing. There may be 
instances in which such nitrogenous fertilizers as nitrate 
of soda may be applied with advantage and profit, but 
usually nitrogen may be brought to the soil more cheap- 
ly by growing legumes. Phosphoric acid and potash 
will not be much needed for many years, in some in- 
stances for an indefinite period. 

In various ways the available supply of fertility 
may be increased without adding fertilizer to the soil 
directly. Among these are the following: (1) Cultivating 
the soil so as to expose it more effectively to those 
weathering agencies which unlock inert plant foods. 
These include sun, air, frost and rain. (2) Supplying 
the soil with vegetable matters which in process of 
decay produce various acid substances which act upon 
the soil grains so as to set free more or less of the 
plant food which they contain. Such action is present 
in degree in the decay of all kinds of plant food in the 
soil, whether it has been produced above or below the 
surface of the same. (3) Keeping the soil in a condi- 
tion so that water will move through it freely. Plant 
food is thus dissolved to feed the plants, and though 
carried downward it is again carried in dry areas to the 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 413 

upper soil, that is, the soil which may be regarded as 
the domain of root growth. • 

The supply of humus in dry areas. — The supply of 
humus in dry areas is much less than in humid areas. 
The difference in the relative proportions cannot be 
stated, as the humus supply does not increase in all 
instances as humidity increases, nor is the supply lim- 
ited in proportion to the dryness of the climate. The 
character of the soil exercises a potent influence. 

The supply of humus in dry areas is low because : 
(1) The proportion of the sandy soils in these is greater 
than in humid areas. Especially is this true of the 
Inter-mountain areas of the west. These do not pro- 
duce a strong vegetation in the absence of irrigating 
waters. (2) The plants are bunched, as it were, in their 
habit of growth, hence the number of the plants on a 
given area is relatively small. In dry areas a tough, 
dense sod is rarely found, though of common occur- 
rence in humid areas. The proportion of organic matter 
thus produced is much less than in the latter. (3) The 
growth in dry areas is less luxuriant than in humid 
areas. It is in a sense dwarfish in its nature. The 
hay or straw taken from a piece of land in dry areas 
is relatively small. The trees show the same character- 
istics. (4) Much of the growth in dry areas has been 
burned through long centuries, and this has greatly 
reduced the humus supply in the soil. (5) The extent 
to which alkali prevails on western soils has interfered 
adversely with the growth of vegetation, in many in- 
stances to its entire exclusion. 

From what has been said it will be apparent that 
it is more difficult to increase humus in dry than in 
humid areas. In the latter, when soils are left untilled 
for a time, they will produce, as it were, spontaneously, 
a luxuriant growth of weeds. Later these will be suc- 
ceeded by native grasses which will dislodge the weeds, 



414 DRY LAND FARMING 

and where the humidity is marked trees will eventually 
take possession and crowd out the grasses. In arid 
areas under such conditions the weed growth would be 
much less strong. The possession of the soil by grasses 
would be much less complete, and forest trees would 
not grow at all. In humid areas germination from 
good seed is sure, but in dry areas such is not always 
true. Even though crops should be grown specially 
to increase the supply of humus, dry conditions may 
prevail to such an extent that they may not furnish very 
much vegetation. 

Fortunately humus is not lost so readily in dry 
areas as in moist areas of equal temperature. Organic 
matter buried in the soil does not decay in the absence 
of moisture, ' Should a heavy coating of stubble be 
buried in the soil in dry areas, say in the spring season, 
and a crop be sown on the land, the crop will fail be- 
cause the undecayed stubble cuts off the moisture sup- 
ply from below. Should dry weather prevail through 
the entire season, the stubble will be turned up by the 
plow in a condititon showing but little decay, whereas 
had rain fallen copiously the stubble would have been 
all decayed. This explains why the effects of farmyard 
manure are discernible for a period much longer than in 
humid areas. This fact tends much to even up, as it 
were, the difference resulting from the different quanti- 
ties of humus possessed by soils in dry and humid areas 
respectively. It is less needed in dry soils to keep them 
in mechanical condition, and because of their dryness. 
Moreover it is claimed that humus in dry areas contains 
much more nitrogen than in humid areas. But because 
of the greatly increased power which humus gives to the 
soil to hold moisture when judiciously supplied 'to it 
in dry areas, the aim should be to maintain at all times 
an adequate supply in the same. 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 415 

Sources of humus.— The sources of humus in dry 
areas includes: (1) organic matter that decays on the 
surface of the soil ; (2) the roots and stubbles of plants ; 
(3) green crops grown and buried, and (4) farmyard 
manures. 

The supply of organic matter from the decay of 
plants on the surface of the ground is inconsiderable, 
for the reason, first, that the growth of these is rela- 
tively small, and, second, that what is produced is in 
a great measure consumed by" animals when grazing. 
This was true to a very considerable degree, even before 
the introduction of domesticated animals. The com- 
paratively small extent to which vegetable soils occur 
in dry areas in thus accounted for. 

The roots and stubbles of plants are one of the 
most important sources of humus in dry areas. The 
plants grown on these are possessed of a relatively 
long and deep root system. The roots are encouraged 
to go down because they may secure moisture thereby 
and also additional food. The opposite is true of plants 
grown under irrigation. The proportional weight of 
the roots of plants differs greatly, and the same also 
holds true of the weight that the roots bear to the stems 
and leaves. The weight of the roots of clover is about 
the same as that of the portion grown above ground. 
The weight of the roots of alfalfa is probably much 
greater than the weight of any single crop of the hay. 
The roots of brome grass are about the same weight 
as that of the stems and leaves. The roots of oats 
are about 40 per cent, of the stems and leaves, whereas 
the roots of peas are only about 9 per cent, of the por- 
tion above ground. It would seem correct to say that 
no plant grown in dry areas will equal alfalfa in the 
quantity of the organic matter which it brings to the 
soil in its roots, or in the deep distribution of the same. 



416 DRY LAND FARMING 

The stubbles of plants likewise differ greatly in the 
amount of the humus which they bring to the land. 
The amount thus brought is proportional to the density 
of the stubbles and to the length of the same. Because 
of their density the stubbles of grasses rank high in 
furnishing organic matter. Wheat, when headed in har- 
vesting the crop, may also be assigned a high place, not 
because of its density, but because of the length of the 
stubble that is thus left for burial. Peas furnish very 
little stubble when the crop is harvested and the same 
is true of vetches. 

In the future much attention will probably be given 
to the growth of plants for burial in dry areas. The 
quantity thus added in a single crop will enable the 
farmer to furnish organic matter to the soil more quick- 
ly than it can be furnished in any other way, but in 
many instances it will not be possible to get any return 
from the land the same season that a crop is buried for 
such a use. This loss may be avoided in some instances 
by burying the crop in conjunction with the summer- 
fallow, as is shown in the division that follows. 
The value of plants for such burial differs greatly. Le- 
gumes hold first rank for such a use, because of the 
nitrogen they bring to the soil, and because of their 
quick decay. Some are more suitable than others, 
because of the season at which they can be buried. 
Such is winter rye that may be buried early in the sea- 
son. Others have the recommendation that they grow 
quickly. Such is buckwheat. 

Some time in the future farmyard manures will be 
an important source of humus in dry areas. That, how- 
ever, will not follow for many years to come, as the 
farmers will center their efforts on growing grain crops 
for sale rather than on growing crops for feeding uses. 
Manure buried in the soil in suitable quantities and at 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 417 

the proper time adds greatly to the productiveness of 
soils in dry areas. 

The benefits from humus. — Prominent among the 
benefits from the application of organic matter to the 
soil are: (1) that it improves the physical structure of 
soils ; (2) that it adds to their moisture-holding power ; 
(3) that it furnishes food to plants in a readily available 
form, and (4) that it lessens the lifting of soil by winds. 

Organic matter improves the physical texture of 
soils by preventing them from lying too compactly. The 
evils resulting from over-impaction are: (1) the bak- 
ing of soils, which is adverse to aeration and to the 
entrance of rain into the soil when it falls ; (2) adding 
greatly to the labor of tillage, and (3) it is proportion- 
ally adverse to successful growth in the crops. When 
the organic matter in soils is practically exhausted, 
which is certain to follow long-continued cropping with 
small grains, soils run together and become impacted in 
many instances. There is virtually no organic matter 
between the soil particles to keep them asunder. This 
adhesive condition prevents the rain that falls in the 
form of heavy showers from entering the soil as it other- 
wise would, and because of this much of the moisture 
that falls may run away over the surface and be lost 
to the soil. That the soil may be kept in such physical 
condition that the moisture that falls shall have an op- 
portunity to enter the soil to the greatest extent possible 
is greatly important in dry areas, and indeed in all 
areas. The baking of the soil proportionally excludes 
air, and as it does, it proportionally lessens the activity 
of bacterial life, thus reducing the beneficent influences 
that flow therefrom. The difference in the labor in- 
volved in plowing a soil in a baked condition as com- 
pared with the same in the unbaked form, will be read- 
ily apparent, and the increased labor involved in the 
pulverization of the same will be relatively greater than 



418 DRY LAND FARMING 

the labor involved in plowing it. When the soil gets 
thus impacted successful growth therefrom is simply 
impossible. 

Organic matter judiciously applied to the soil adds 
greatly to its moisture-holding power. It is applied 
judiciously when it is- added in quantities that will not, 
because of their excess, keep them lying too loose and 
open, and when it is buried in a condition that will facil- 
itate quick decay as far as this may be possible. When 
excessive in cjuantity, impaction is so little present, that 
the air removes too much moisture from the soil. It 
does not lie sufficiently close to the seeds when they 
are planted to promote vigorous germination, and the 
roots of the plants cannot feed properly because of lack 
of moisture. It is easily possible in a dry season to pro- 
duce failure in a crop that would otherwise prove suc- 
cessful through the injudicious application of organic 
matter. This means that when manures are buried in 
the soil they should be applied only in moderate quan- 
tity at one time, and that when a green crop is buried 
it should be so buried before it reaches too advanced a 
stage of maturity, otherwise it will decay too slowly. 

Organic matter in its decay adds much to the mois- 
ture-holding power in the soil. It does so by absorbing 
water that is going downward in the soil and holding it 
much as it is taken up and held by a sponge. Of course 
it will not hold it for an indefinite period in the absence 
of rain, but it will in very many instances hold it suffi- 
•ciently long to enable it to be taken up by the roots of 
plants which penetrate the soil much more readily be- 
cause of the presence of organic matter. It has been 
claimed that in dry areas the presence of a sufficient 
supply of organic matter in the soil in a suitable stage 
of decay will increase its moisture-holding power by 
fully 50 per cent. 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 419 

But the opposite result will follow when it lies in the 
soil without decaying, as it does sometimes when buried 
in the form of stubble, of dry grass on sod land or of 
strawy manure. Because of such burial and the adverse 
results that have followed, the prejudice has arisen which 
prevails to a very considerable extent in dry areas against 
the application of farm manures. If straw must be bur- 
ied, as when strong stubbles are plowed under, the aim 
should be to disc the soil before it is plowed, that the 
stubbles may be mixed with the soil before they are 
buried, and then to pack the soil where it will stand 
such packing after it is plowed. The direct burial of 
heavy stubble by covering it in a shallow furrow, in the 
eastern portions of the semi-arid area, where heavy 
stubble is frequently produced, has led to the ruin of 
many a grain crop. The stubble thus lying in the bot- 
tom of the furrow has prevented the ascent of soil mois- 
ture and also the downward penetration of the roots. 
Why, then, does the plan of burying the straw of grain 
that has been headed meet with so much favor? Because 
(1) its deep burial is usually followed by the bare-fallow, 
which gives it time to decay; (2) because in its decay it 
encourages all the processes of bacterial life which are so 
helpful to crop production ; (3) because of the plant food 
which it furnishes in its decay, much of which is brought 
up from the subsoil while the crop that produced the 
straw has been in process of growth, and (4)- it makes 
the soil more porous and therefore moi'e easily and ef- 
fectively worked for the prevention of evaporation. The 
burning of stubble, like the burning of straw, is a most 
baneful process. 

Organic matter in the soil furnishes food to plants 
in a readily available form. The plants that are buried 
have gathered food from the soil through the wide dis- 
tribution of their roots, and by processes that have been 
slow in their action. When the or2:anic matter thus 



420 DRY LAND FARMING 

produced is buried in the soil, as in the form of green 
crops, this substance in its decay readily furnishes food 
for the crops that follow, providing the decay of the 
green crops thus grown is sufficiently rapid. Thus it is 
that crops that are less valuable are made to gather food 
for crops that are of greater value relatively. 

The burial of organic matter in the soil materially 
lessens the tendency to the shifting of soils through the 
action of the wind. In sandy loam soils, and to a greater 
extent in sandy soils, the shifting of soils through the 
action of strong winds that are much liable to prevail 
at certain seasons of the year, is becoming a serious 
handicap to the farmer in the prosecution of his work. 
Where this occurs, the more labor that is put upon the 
seed bed by discing and harrowing, the more will be the 
loss through the drifting of the soil. In some instances 
the seed is laid bare, and the soil that covers it is car- 
ried to other areas. A plentiful supply of organic mat- 
ter in the soil, whether in the form of plant roots in the 
soil or of stubbles incorporated in the surface soil in 
the process of discing the same, will tend very much to 
lessen the shifting of soil through the action of the wind. 

How to increase humus. — Since the presence of hu- 
mus in soils in dry areas produces results so beneficial, it 
is greatly important that the supply of the same sh^ll 
be abundantly present. How to maintain such a supply 
is certainly a question of much moment. The following- 
are some of the ways in which it may be applied: (1) 
by growing and burying non-leguminous plants; (2) by 
growing alfalfa; (3) by growing and burying the Cana- 
dian field pea; (4) by growing and burying the cow pea; 
(5) by growing and burying the sand vetch, and (6) by 
growing and burying sweet clover. 

Any of the non-leguminous plants may be grown 
for such burial. Some of these, however, are so valuable 
for other uses, as wheat, for instance, that it would not 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 421 

seem profitable to grow them for such a use. Promi- 
nent among the non-leguminous crops that are grown 
for burial are winter rye, buckwheat and Dwarf Essex 
rape. Winter rye has peculiar adaptation for such 
growth, since it can be sown in the autumn and buried 
in the late spring without losing a crop the season that 
it has been buried. It may be drilled in amid the stub- 
bles and without discing them in the autumn. It may 
be buried in the spring in time to follow with a crop of 
corn or to summer-fallow the land as may be desired. 
Buckwheat and rape may be grown for such a use on 
summer-fallowed land. When thus grown the late sea- 
son at which the crop is buried may to some extent 
prove adverse to the retention of soil moisture, but this 
will be probably more than ofifset by the benefits that 
will result from the burial of one or the other of these 
crops. Winter rye should be buried usually not later 
than the earing stage, buckwheat at the stage of full 
bloom, and rape wdien it has reached maximum growth. 

Alfalfa furnishes large supplies of organic matter 
in the decay of its roots when the crop is broken by 
the plow. The roots not only increase the plant food 
content in the soil and subsoil, but they add greatly to 
the moisture-holding power of the soil by the absorbing 
power of the roots in their decay, and also by the many 
small channels which they open up in the subsoil for 
the downward passage of ground water. So beneficial 
is the mission of alfalfa in this respect, that in dry areas 
it may be wise to grow it in somewhat short, rather than 
in long, rotations, so that the benefits resulting from 
the humus which it supplies may be accelerated and 
increased. 

The Canadian field pea is a most excellent humus- 
supplying plant when buried in the soil, but to the burial 
of a crop of peas there is the same objection that applies 
to the burial of a crop of alfalfa, viz., that the pea crop, 



422 DRY LAND FARMING 

like the alfalfa crop, is too valuable for such burial. 
There is the further objection that the price paid for the 
seed of peas makes such feeding costly. But when peas 
are thus buried the available nitrogen thus brought to 
the land is very considerable and much of it has been 
obtained from the air. 

The results from growing and burying the cow pea 
are quite as significant as the results from growing the 
Canadian field pea, but the domain for the cow pea is, 
of course, in latitudes that would be too warm for grow- 
ing the Canadian field pea at its best. The objection also 
applies to the cow pea, that its food value is such as to 
preclude the advisability of growing it for burial, save 
in certain instances that are more or less exceptional 
in character. 

The area in which the sand vetch will grow with 
sufficient success to justify growing it in the dry area 
has not been sufficiently determined as yet. If it should 
prove true that the sand vetch may be sown with a 
spring crop without detriment to the same, and that 
it will grow on subsequently and furnish a large amount 
of organic matter for burial the following season, then 
it will follow that the mission of the sand vetch in fur- 
nishing humus in dry areas will be one of much sig- 
nificance, as (1) it would start in its growth without 
detriment to other crops ; (2) it would furnish humus 
for burial without necessitating the loss of a crop, which 
would be true of it even when buried on land that is to 
be summer-fallowed, for such land would not in any 
case furnish a crop that season, and (3) it would fur- 
nish nitrogen from the air in plentiful supply. 

The place for the growing and the burial of sweet 
clover as for the growing and burial of sand vetch has 
not been well worked out, but especially under hard 
conditions the place for the growth of this plant in order 
to supply humus would seem to be a large one. As 



FERTILITY AND HUMUS IN DRY AREAS 423 

in the case of the sand vetch, it would seem to be quite 
feasible to sow the seed in conjunction with spring" 
grain without detriment to the grain, and to bury the 
clover crop the following season, preferably in conjunc- 
tion with the summer-fallowing of the land. The sweet 
clover produces a large tonnage relatively for burial, and 
it gathers and stores in the soil relatively large amounts 
of nitrogen. Moreover, it will succeed on soils so strong- 
ly impregnated with alkali as to preclude the possibility 
of growing on them the more valuable plants with any 
measure of success. In this way such soils may be im- 
proved by the removal of considerable quantities of the 
alkali, should the crop be removed, and by the favor- 
able influence exerted on the soil mechanically should it 
be buried. Ordinarily the cow pea, the sand vetch and 
sweet clover should be buried when in full bloom. 



CHAPTER XVIII 

LIVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 

When the homesteader locates on the dry farm, his 
efforts are usually concentrated, and properly so, on 
the production of grain, but he makes a serious mis- 
take if he entirely neglects the keeping of live stock, for 
the presence of the cow and the brood-sow are about 
as essential to the farm home in dry areas as the pres- 
ence of the breaking plow. It is true, nevertheless, that 
live stock on the dry farm should not be introduced with 
undue haste, for at the outset the furnishing of food for 
winter may prove a costly problem in seasons that are 
unusually dry. 

That the production of grain for sale should be the 
principal object of the dry farmer during the first years 
of his farming is undoubtedly true, but in time more or 
less of live stock should be grown upon his farm. This 
should be done to the extent of using practically all the 
coarse grains that he will grow and also the hay and 
straw produced as well as the pasture areas that are 
accessible on the farm or on the unoccupied lands that 
may be adjacent thereto. 

The lament that the tillage of the arable areas of the 
open range is going to destroy the live stock industry in 
dry areas is not well founded. Even on the arable farm 
devoted largely to the growing of grain, more live stock 
can be kept in addition than were formerly kept on a 
similar area. This results from the greatly increased 
production that follows the proper tillage of the soil 
in fodder and also in pasture. It would seem safe to 
say that the food nutrients in the straw grown on an 
acre of well tilled land in dry areas will be more than the 
food nutrients from an acre of the same before the land 
has been broken. The food nutrients produced by an acre 



LIVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 425 

of well planned pasture from grasses grown under 
cultivation, should be from two to three times as much 
as from grasses produced from the native prairie. The 
production of live stock on the arable farms will there- 
fore, in time, greatly increase the production of beef and 
mutton, to say nothing of the production of pork and 
poultry, which was impossible under old-time range con- 
ditions. 

Why live stock should be kept. — Live stock should 
be kept on the arable form for the following reasons 
among others that may be given: (1) to prevent waste 
on the farm ; (2) to prevent waste on the range ; (3) to 
increase diversity in production ; (4) to maintain fertil- 
ity in the land; (5) to furnish food for the home, and 
(6) to increase the revenues from the farm. 

In the absence of live stock on the arable farm other 
than the work horses that till the land, serious waste 
is unavoidable; (1) there will be more or less waste in 
the uneaten grasses of untilled portions ; (2) in the straw, 
much or all of which will probably be burned ; (3) in the 
grain heads that are lost amid the stubbles because un- 
gleaned ; (4) in the uneaten food that grows up amid 
the stubbles, and (5) in the unconsumed grain that is 
unavoidably wasted where threshing is done in the open 
air. Such waste is unavoidable in areas where live stock 
is not maintained. 

In newly settled areas, there are usually more or less 
range pastures contiguous to the individual farms. This 
may be entirely wasted in the absence of live stock to 
consume it. In some instances these pastures are so 
ample as to justify the homesteader in making the grow- 
ing of live stock the dominant feature of his work, until 
the adjacent lands are taken up as homesteads. 

The growing of live stock encourages diversity in 
production. It encourages the growth of forage and root 
crops. While they are being grown the land is being 



426 DRY LAND FARMING 

prepared for the successful growth of grain crops the 
following year. The larger, therefore, that the area of 
such crops is, up to the limit of the ability of the farmer 
to properly care for them without undue outlay for hired 
help, the larger should be his profits from the ground 
thus tilled, as, to the extent that he grows these crops, 
he avoids the necessity for the cropless bare-fallow. 

The introduction of live stock makes it possible to 
maintain virtually undiminished production in the land. 
The waning fertility in lands where such production has 
been long deferred, as in some parts of the Dakotas, 
California and other states, should serve as a warning. 
Some lands, and especially the volcanic ash soils of the 
west, may stand continued cropping for many years, but 
ultimately they must fail. Beyond all question, the fer- 
tilizing material produced by live stock will add greatly 
to production in all its various lines. 

Live stock may be made to furnish a large part of 
the living of the farmer, and with but little cost. The 
cow, for instance, can turn the free grasses of the prairie 
into the best food that man may get. The brood-sow 
and her progeny will manufacture the same grasses with 
waste from the grain fields into meat for the winter. 
Fowls with a moderate grain supplement will turn grass- 
hoppers and other insects into valuable food. Such live 
stock, therefore, should be introduced the first season 
where there is a family on the ranch, but, of course, in 
very limited numbers. 

At the very outset, therefore, the revenues of the 
farm may be increased by reducing the outlay for food. 
The farmer with a family who fails to try to grow a large 
part of his living on his own farm is not true to himself. 
As time goes on the live stock will become a source of con- 
siderable revenue, although for several years it is not 
likely to become the chief source of revenue on the 
arable farm. 



LIVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 427 

The kinds of live stock to grow. — Because of the 
varying conditions, the discussion of this question is not 
easy. These are such as relate to the character of the 
production, the location and its surroundings and the 
predilections of the individual. It will be manifest that 
in some areas the production of grasses will be relatively 
easy, in others relatively difficult. In one location pas- 
ture land may be cheap and relatively plentiful. In other 
instances it may not be possible to secure it outside of 
the home. One man may succeed best in handling dairy 
stock, and another will succeed best with sheep. All 
these and other factors must be considered. 

Among the determining factors are the following: 
(1) the climate; (2) the precipitation, and (3) the mar- 
ket. The climate has an important bearing on the shelter 
called for and also on the production. Fortunately, in 
much of the dry area of the west, shelter is not so 
much needed as in corresponding latitudes in the east, 
but some shelter is called for, and more for some 
classes of live stock than for others, and all shelter is 
more or less costly. The precipitation has an important 
bearing on the production. For instance, in the upper 
Flathead valley, 15 inches of rainfall produces more pas- 
ture and more succulent than a similar rainfall in the 
same latitude west of the mountains, hence dairying 
may be more readily conducted in the former than in the 
latter. The market demands alone may determine the 
character of the live stock that ought to be chiefly grown, 
and the facilities for marketing should also be carefully 
considered. The farmer with a good local market near 
at hand has a great advantage over the one whose market 
is not local and distant. 

All farmers, whether married or single, must have 
horses. That question does not admit of discussion. 
Beyond that much will depend on the presence or ab- 
sence of a family in the home. Where it is present, it 



428 DRY LAND FARMING 

is, in a sense, imperative to have enough live stock to 
supply the needs of the family. This means that the 
farmers must, in a sense, have some cows, swine and 
poultry, and it will be all the more to their interest to 
have some sheep, especially after the farm is fenced. 
The farmer thus equipped, who at the same time grows 
his own vegetables and small fruits, has but little addi- 
tional outlay for his living. To furnish this he does 
not need to maintain a large number of any of these 
classes of animals. 

Under some conditions it may be wise to extend 
the growing of live stock so as to make it the dominant 
industry, even at an early day in the work of the home- 
steader, as, for instance, where free or very cheap pas- 
tures are easily accessible. Such extension may apply 
to horses, cattle or sheep, according to the conditions 
that may be present. 

Stocking the dry farm. — As a rule, the live stock 
on a dry farm should be introduced very gradually. For 
this several. reasons may be given. First, there has not 
been time to make suitable preparation to care for them 
in a large way. The outbuildings are not ready. Fences 
have not been built. It may be that winter water sup- 
plies have not been secured. There has not been time 
to make sure of winter supplies of food, as the bulk of 
the ground broken is usually wanted for grain. The 
introduction of much stock by purchase is costly. It 
is much better, as a rule, for the dry land farmer whose- 
operations must be confined to his own farm, to begin 
with a small amount, and to grow much or all of the 
subsequent increase. When increase is made in this 
way, all the operations of the farm may be kept in due 
balance. Such increase is thus obtained at a minimum 
of cost. The experience while making it has been ob- 
tained under the attendant conditions, and is, therefore, 



LIVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 429 

doubly valuable. The protection wanted may also be 
furnished at a minimum cost. 

The amount of live stock that a dry land farm will 
sustain cannot be stated. It cannot be even approxi- 
mated, owing to the very great difference in the condi- 
tions. It will be at once manifest that where the rain- 
fall is 18 inches, much more live stock can be kept than 
where it is but 12, or even 15 inches. It will also be ap- 
parent that where bulky foods may be readily grown, as 
corn and the sorghums, more live stock relatively may 
be kept than in areas where these do not succeed well 
because of low temperatures. It would seem safe to 
say, that the amount of live stock that a dry farm will 
sustain will increase with increase in the precipitation. 
The relative number that such a farm will sustain is not 
high, not so high as in humid areas. Such farming 
where the farmer has no access to outside grazing lands 
is usually a mixed farming proposition in which the 
growing of grain for sale will probably be a dominant 
factor for many years to come. It would be unwise, 
therefore, for one situated thus to make the growing 
of live stock a dominant factor in his work at the out- 
set, but this may be done by the farmer who has access 
to pastures that are cheap or free. 

Great care should be exercised not to overstock the 
dry farm. Under the most favored conditions, such a 
mistake is very costly, as it forces the sale of the ani- 
mals, whether in good condition or lean, and at such a 
time it is almost certain that they will be lean. When 
a very dry season comes, and it may come at any time, 
there may be a serious shortage in both pasture and fod- 
der, hence some reserve kept over from a season more 
bountiful may be a wise provision. While the hazard 
mentioned may occur, it does not furnish a fitting ex- 
cuse for the exclusion of live stock from any farm. 



430 DRY LAND FARMING 

Growing horses. — On the dry farm horses will al- 
ways be necessary in order to do a large part of the 
work. This statement does not mean that other kinds 
of power, as steam and gasoline, may not be exten- 
sively used, especially in breaking up the stubborn soils 
of the prairie. The horse will always be in evidence 
not only on the dry farm, but on all farms. 

Usually from three to four horses are called for 
when breaking up the stubborn soils of the prairie. 
There would seem to be no good reasons why two at 
least should not be brood mares. These may produce 
foals while aiding in doing the work of the farm, pro- 
viding they are carefully worked. As much work should 
not be exacted of them as if they were not suckling 
foals, but they will still do a large amount of work and 
also rear foals if well fed. It will, furthermore, be a 
decided advantage if such foals come in the autumn, 
for then the dams can suckle them at that season of 
the year when they are not worked, as they are in the 
summer. Experience has shown that brood mares 
worked in moderation will rear foals more surely and 
in better form than those that are not worked at all. 
The young horses, if of the draught types, may be made 
to aid in the light work of the farm when from 2 to 3 
years of age, and when they have reached the latter 
age, they will sell readily for a good price. 

Horses reared in the dry country call for but little 
shelter at any season of the 3^ear. When allowed liberty, 
they can secure food where other classes of live stock 
would not be able to do so, as when, for instance, the 
ground is covered with snow. The habit of pawing to 
remove the snow makes it possible for them to live and 
flourish where other classes of live stock would not 
survive under similar conditions. In the winter they 
will utilize such foods as straw to better advantage 



LIVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 431 

than most other live stock. Relatively, therefore, they 
may be grown cheaply. 

The return is also large, for the numbers kept. 
Where the farmer devotes his attention mainly to the 
growing of this class of stock, he does not need to have 
many of them on the place at one time, hence there is 
but little hazard of loss in a season of drought. Where 
range of rough pastures is accessible, in the larger 
portion of the dry country, horses will come through 
the winter in good form without the necessity of very 
much supplemental food. 

The supplemental foods for the feeding of growing 
foals include alfalfa, fodder corn fed in the bundle, and 
straw, in northern areas. For idle work horses, straw 
will suffice for much of the winter. In southern areas, 
alfalfa, Milo maize, Kaffir corn and sorghum will best' 
answer the purpose. Milo maize is also much esteemed 
for feeding work horses in these areas. It is usually 
fed to them as grain food in the head, which not only 
obviates the necessity for threshing the grain, but it 
also insures a more complete digestion of the naturally 
hard grain, since it is more thoroughly masticated. 

Growing dairy cattle. — That the dry farm is not 
nearly so well adapted for dairying as the irrigated farm 
cannot be gainsaid. The creamery, therefore, will not 
probably be much in evidence where dry farming is fol- 
lowed for many years subsequent to the settlement of 
the land. But this does not mean that home dairying 
may not be practised in a moderate way, even at the 
outset of the farming. It may even be wise in some in- 
stances for a farmer to give considerable attention to 
dairying at the outset, where free pasture is plentiful, 
but when the stock must be confined to the limits of the 
arable farm, the number of cows kept should not usually 
be large. 



433 DRY LAND FARMING 

Where the cows are to be kept within the limits of 
th§ farm, the grazing problem is more difficult than the 
furnishing of winter foods. The pastures that may be 
grown are discussed elsewhere (see p. 355). These, how- 
ever, may be supplemented by such soiling foods as al- 
falfa, corn and field roots in the north, and by alfalfa, 
the sorghums, Milo maize and stock melons in the 
south. 

The winter food in the north may be made up al- 
most entirely of alfalfa hay and corn fodder fed in the 
bundle, and supplemented by a very small amount of 
rye, barley or speltz fed in the ground form. The ra- 
tion may also consist of alfalfa and grain cut underripe 
and fed unthreshed. A mixture of Canada field peas 
and beardless barley grown together is excellent. This 
also is true of millet grown in rows and cultivated. In 
southern areas the winter food may consist mainly of 
alfalfa hay, sorghum and Milo maize fodder, and a sup- 
plement of Milo or sorghum meal, or of ground speltz. 
The Milo maize may be fed as seed and heads ground 
together. 

The cows should drop their calves in the fall rather 
than the spring, as the calves can be fed with more care 
and success in the winter season. The cows will then 
be dry in those months of the late summer when the 
pastures are dry. When thus managed, the milk flow 
will be better sustained, and the lactation period more 
or less prolonged. 

As such cows will, of course, be hand-milked, the 
skim milk and the buttermilk should be fed to calves 
and swine. The butter or the cheese product, as the 
case may be, will usually find its way to private cus- 
tomers, as it will be too restricted in quantity for a 
wholesale market. 

Growing beef cattle. — In dry areas the field for 
growing beef is probably wider than that for growing 



LIVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 433 

dairy products, owing to the fact that it may be grown 
largely, in many instances, on rugged and broken pas- 
tures in proximity to the arable farm or forming a part 
of it. During the milk period, beef will be produced 
by methods that are radically different. On the strictly 
arable farm, the calves will be hand-fed, while on the 
arable and rugged farm, they will be suckled by their 
dams. 

When reared by hand, the calves should be progeny 
of dual cows,^ and the aim should be to have them come 
in the fall. If the progeny of dairy cows, they should 
be sired by a beef bull. They should be reared essen- 
tially on skim milk and adjuncts after the age of two 
weeks. They should have good grazing, as rye or rape, 
sown especially for them, and they should, as a rule, be 
put on the market at the age of not more than 18 months. 
While taking milk, and subsequently, such meals as 
bran, ground oats, barley or Milo maize should be fed 
to them freely, also a nice quality of alfalfa hay. Dur- 
ing the second winter they should be fed on such fod- 
ders as alfalfa, corn and sorghum, and should get a few 
pounds daily of such meal as barley, speltz or Milo 
maize. The aim should be to force growth with a pru- 
dent haste and thus shorten the period of pasturing and 
effect a substantial saving in the food of maintenance. 

When reared on the dams during the milk period, it 
may not always be the best plan to have the calves come 
in the fall, as when they come in the spring the cows 
may oftentimes graze much of the winter on the rugged 
pastures. Provision should be made for saving such 
pasture by keeping the stock from grazing on that por- 
tion in summer. The first winter the calves should be 
given a moderate amount of grain along with the fod- 
ders named above. The second summer they will be 
on the pastures without grain. The second winter they 
may be fed similarly to the hand-reared calves when 



434 DRY LAND FARMING 

preparing them for market, and they ought to be sold 
when two years old. Some western farmers head their 
wheat and feed it thus to cattle that are being fattened. 
The wisdom of doing so is to be questioned. They 
should then weigh about 1,200 to 1,300 pounds, while 
those hand-fed would weigh about 1,000 pounds. 

Such animals should find a ready market wherever 
high-class meat is wanted. Grown thus it will be high- 
class meat, and should command the highest price. 
When growing such meat, it should never be allowed to 
become lean. 

Sheep on the dry farm. — When sheep are reared on 
the dry farm the number so reared should not be very 
large. The production on the same when mixed in char- 
acter would not justify the maintenance of numbers 
so large relatively as in humid areas. In the latter, 
sown pastures may be grown in succession through all 
the season, but only to a limited extent in the former. 
The numbers, however, should be enough to consume 
all the forage that would otherwise go to waste, as, for 
instance, grazing in the lanes and amid the stubbles 
in the fields and on summer-fallow land. On every 
farm the pasture from such a source is ample to sustain 
a small flock of sheep, which may be thus grazed vir- 
tually in most localities for three-fourths of the year 
without cost. The benefit thus rendered will be marked 
in the destruction of weeds, and in distributing more 
or less fertilizer over the land. 

When rough pasture areas are contiguous to or form 
a part of the dry arable farm, sheep can be grazed on 
them about in the same way as cattle are grazed as de- 
scribed above. The breeding portion of the flock may be 
wintered on food grown on the arable portion of the 
farm. The part of the flock to be disposed of may be 
finished on pastures grown for the purpose. These may 
comprise Dwarf Essex rape grown in rows and culti- 



LIVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 



435 



vated as a rule, some dwarfish kind of corn or peas and 
white hulless barley. These will be grazed where they 
grew, and, if necessary, they may be supplemented by 
more grain grown on the farm, as, for instance, barley 
in the north and Milo maize threshed or in the head in 
the south. 




SHEEP ON RANGE PASTURES, MALHEUR COUNTY, OREGON 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 



When simply fattened on the farm the supplies for 
fattening will be purchased and they will be finished on 
foods such as have been referred to in the preceding para- 
graph. In the San Luis valley of Colorado the fattening 
of sheep mainly on peas has grown into a large industry. 
There are no reasons for concluding that this industry 
may not be extended to many other areas. 

The opportunity to fatten sheep on Squaw corn or 
some other small variety grown for the purpose in the 



436 DRY LAND FARMING 

dry area, is thus virtually without limit. The growing of 
the corn stores moisture in the soil for the next crop, 
and feeding it off thus furnishes readily available fer- 
tility. Such grazing is not well adapted to areas in 
which considerable rain or snow falls in the autumn 
months. 

The market for the surplus of the small flock should 
be found chiefly on the farm itself. It should furnish an 
important source from which the home supply of meat 
may be obtained, especially in the winter season. When 
finished in a wholesale way, as on crops that are grazed, 
they will be in condition to meet the needs of any mar- 
ket that may be accessible to them. 

Swine on the dry farm. — The place for swine on the 
dry farm will always be one of considerable importance. 
From this source, more than any other, must come the 
supply of farm meats. To purchase meat for the home 
on the dry farm that may be all grown upon it would 
be a grave mistake, owing to the fact that pork may 
be slaughtered at almost any age should necessity call 
for it. Complications which sometimes arise with other 
animals from over-stocking may be prevented. Where 
a few cows are kept, the milk will aid greatly in giving 
the swine ^ good start in growth at an early age. 

But even in the absence of cows, swine may be 
grown with much profit. The young pigs should remain 
on the dams until they become self-weaned, and the 
farmer should be content, as a rule, with but one litter 
from each dam in one year. With the aid of skim milk, 
two litters may be grown save where the winters are 
quite cold. The dry land farmer is not in a position to 
grow swine as cheaply or as numerously as the farmer 
who grows the same in irrigated areas. In summer al- 
falfa is the basic pasture for swine in the larger portion 
of the dry country. But other pasture, as Dwarf Essex 
rape, beardless and hulless barley, is good. In the soutk 



UVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 



437 



the sorghums may be made to add to the grazing; 
northward swine may be finished in the fields, as on 
peas or some small kind of corn. In the south peanuts 
and also corn furnish good fattening foods. If Milo 
maize is fed it should not be fed alone, as the swine do 
not thrive when fed thus. 

On the dry farm the needs of the family must first 
be supplied. If there is a surplus beyond this, it will 




SWINEJGROWN ON DRY LAND FARM, NEAR HOBSON, MONTANA 
^iCourtesy Great Northern RailwayJCo.^] 

usually find a market without the need for shipping it. 
This is one of the few food commodities that will never 
glut the market, but it may be necessary sometimes, as 
when large numbers are grown and fattened on products 
in the field, to ship the animals aw^ay by rail. 

Poultry on the dry farm. — Poultry should be kept 
on every farm where there is a family. The climatic 
conditions for growing it are, in nearly all localities. 



438 DRY LAND FARMING 

very excellent, because of the dryness of the air and its 
temperate character. The relatively small amount of 
grain food called for makes the growing of fowls a safe 
and profitable business, where it is wisely conducted. 
Even where grain could only be grown once in two years 
on the same land, the business should be a safe and 
profitable one. 

All the grain foods grown in dry areas may be fed 
with profit to poultry if suitably blended. Of these 
none is better or even quite so good as wheat. Hulless 
barley is excellent. On southern areas the seed from 
Milo maize and the sorghums will serve an excellent 
end. These are frequently fed by suspending the heads 
on a stretched wire and allowing the fowls to help 
themselves, thus furnishing them with needed exercise, 
especially when they have to reach high for the food. 
The varieties with a bent down head are most easily 
suspended thus. The green food may come in the form 
of alfalfa, rape and field roots. 

The demand for these products will always con- 
tinue good, as they are staples that will always be 
wanted, but the product can be readily transported and 
at moderate cost for the value. In the home the product 
is indispensable, and the food which it furnishes is 
wholesome in character. There is probably no other 
class of live stock that can be grown on the dry farm 
that will yield a larger profit on the investment or that 
is more easily conducted. 

The size for the dry farm. — The size for the dry 
farm should be determined by such considerations as : 
(1) the amount of the precipitation ; (2) the character 
of the soil; (3) the capacity of the individual, and (4) 
the style of the farming. 

It is, of course, impossible to determine the relative 
influence which these considerations should exert, but 
the first consideration is certainly one of much im- 



LIVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 439 

portance. It would seem safe to say that the area to 
be farmed should increase as the precipitation decreases, 
for the less the" amount of precipitation, the fewer is the 
number of the crops that can be grown in a given term 
of years. It is very evident that the farmer who can 
grow but one crop in two years should have more land 
to till than the farmer who may expect to get a crop 
practically every year. It was this consideration that 
led to the granting of homesteads in certain areas of 320 
acres instead of 160 acres, the usual size for such farms. 

The tillage of a soil that is naturally friable and 
that holds moisture readily does not call for so much 
labor as the tillage of a heavy soil, hence the farmer 
whose soil is of the first class can till a much larger 
area than the farmer whose soil is of the second class, 
and with no greater expenditure of labor. When tilling 
the heavy soil, the compensation may come from larger 
yields, at least in some instances. On general principles, 
therefore, the lighter the soil, the larger should be the 
area that is capable of being farmed. 

' When determining the size of the farm, much de- 
pends on the capacity of the farmer. It is certainly 
safe to assume that the less the capacity of the farmer, 
the smaller should be the amount of the land which he 
tills. One farmer with large capacity may handle fairly 
well a whole section, or even more than a section, where- 
as another farmer may not have capacity to handle well 
a quarter section. Something depends on the farmer's 
family. A farmer whose family is sufficiently grown 
to enable him to do his work without hiring -should suc- 
ceed better on a farm large enough to utilize all the 
labor than on one of less size. As wages are at the 
present time, the dry land farmer should sedulously aim 
to avoid hiring to the greatest extent possible, and to 
accomplish this end when investing he should gauge ac- 
cordingly the size of the farm that he can till. 



440 DRY LAND FARMING 

There is another class of farmers whose work is in 
a sense speculative. They live in the cities. They 
usually own large areas and farm them in a speculative 
way. These men are wholly dependent on hired labor, 
hence in order to get a remunerative return they must 
of necessity farm large areas and in a wholesale way. 
Such farming may be successful as long as the land is 
new and clean, but in all states the story of such farming 
is the same. Within a few years the land usually be- 
comes very foul with weeds and the crops become so 
unproductive that tillage operations result in loss, but 
substantial profits may be realized, nevertheless, from 
the advance in the price of the land. A locality cannot 
be built up by farming on those lines as it can by the 
efifort of farmers on moderately sized farms, for reasons 
that will be apparent. 

The nature of the farming probably more than any- 
thing else should determine the size of the farms. 
Where the farmer grows only grain and does the work 
mainly himself, 160 acres is amply large for such a farm. 
Where he keeps live stock and must needs confine the 
grazing of them within the limits of his farm, he should 
have not less than 320 acres of grazing land in dry 
areas. Land in such areas does not produce so much 
pasture as in areas that are moist. When the farmer 
can control rough range pastures contiguous to his land 
or that form a part of it, he may need a section or two 
of rough land for each quarter section of arable land in 
his possession. On the latter he will grow the food that 
he needs for winter feeding. In yet other instances 
the farm may be all classed as rough land, and yet within 
it there may be enough arable valley land to enable the 
farmer to grow on these the winter food needed. These 
farms also should not contain less probably than one 
or two sections. Under irrigation the small farm unit 
is better than the large one for the average farmer. 



LIVE STOCK ON DRY FARMS 441 

While 320 acres may be called for where dry land farm- 
ing is to^produce the best maximum results in dry land, 
farming 80 acres would seem ample where irrigation 
is practised. Where the farmer who can use irrigating 
waters has more than 80 acres to care for, in a majority 
of instances, the evidences of a neglected tillage are 
more or less present. This holds true of lands that are 
farmed more or less even on the lines of live stock pro- 
duction. 



CHAPTER XIX 
THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 

When the home seeker is desirous of locating in the 
semi-arid country he should not do so until he has ob- 
tained some information with reference to the nature 
and extent of the possible and probable water supply 
for household use, and also for such live stock as it may 
be necessary to keep on the farm. Unless water from 
some source is obtained in reasonable supply, it is not 
possible to build a permanent home. 

The scarcity of water. — The fact should be recog- 
nized that the water necessary for the various uses of 
life and for live stock is less plentiful than in humid 
areas, at least in very many instances. In the very 
nature of things it cannot be otherwise, because of the 
relatively light character of the precipitation. But the 
mistake should not be made that there is an exact rela- 
tion between the degree of the precipitation and the 
degree of the water supply. Especially is this true of 
subterranean waters. These are found plentifully in 
some localities, and not far distant from the surface, even 
where the normal precipitation is very light. 

In the search for water, as by boring or drilling, 
the results obtained are exceedingly variable in the 
same general locality. In one instance good water and 
in fairly liberal supply can be obtained within, say, 20 
to 40 or 50 feet of the surface. In other instances water 
may not be obtainable in proximity to the former at a 
depth of 500 to 600 feet and even at a greater depth. 
Homesteaders, therefore, should be slow to conclude that 
because attempts made to obtain water have failed it 
cannot be obtained. 

There are two principal sources of ground water. 
These are from precipitation which falls in the form of 



THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 443 

rain, sleet and snow and from sheet or free water found 
at various depths. The natural sources of the former 
are springs and streams. The artificial sources are cis- 
terns, ponds, irrigating ditches and wells. The latter 
is obtainable from wells of varying depth. It is be- 
lieved that this free water exists everywhere beneath 
the earth's surface, but in some instances it is so deep 
that it is not practicable to reach it, for economic uses. 
In instances not a few, it is found at depths not far be- 
low the surface, and this is true of it in some instances 
in areas that are unusually dry. 

' Ground or free water is very abundant. It has been 
claimed that this free water in the earth's surface should 
cover it to the depth of 90 feet. If only a limited pro- 
portion of this could be obtained everywhere without 
too great expense, it would make possible the tillage 
of all the arable land in arid and semi-arid regions, 
providing the water was always of such a character as 
to properly sustain plant life. 

In some instances subterranean waters are so im- 
pregnated with foreign influences, especially soda and 
salt, as to be unfit for use by humans, and yet they may 
be taken with apparent relish and without injury by 
live stock. In yet other instances the impregnation is 
so strong that it will not properly sustain animal or 
vegetable life. But usually such ground water is of the 
purest and the best. The character of the water is' influ- 
enced, of course, by the substances* through which and 
over which it passes. 

The little that is known as to the whereabouts of 
subterranean waters, linked with the fact that they do 
exist not infrequently in very unlikely places, emphasizes 
the benefit that would accrue from determining their 
whereabouts. The expense that would thus be involved 
would be so great that it could not be borne by in- 
dividuals. It is a work that may be best done by the 



444 DRY LAND FARMING 

state or by the central government. In this way the 
general course of these underground basins may be so 
certainly traced that it would be known where water 
could be obtained over them. 

Why water is scarce. — Water is scarce in the arid 
and semi-arid regions because: (1) of the low precipita- 
tion; (2) of the character of the precipitation; (3) of 
the hardness of the unbroken soil ; (4) of the extent 
to which moisture from snow escapes, and (5) of the 
relatively rapid evaporation. 

The low precipitation is one of the most potent of 
the reasons for the scarcity of water in dry areas. It 
stands to reason that where the precipitation is light 
the available water supply will be meagre. It is rea- 
sonable to suppose that where the rainfall is 40 inches 
per annum water in the soil and subsoil will be much 
more plentiful than where the rainfall is 20 inches, and 
where the rainfall is -20 inches it is much more plenti- 
ful than where it is 10 inches. Where the rainfall is 
20 inches the moisture should be such as to make it 
easily possible to grow crops with much certainty and 
to establish very desirable homes. When the rainfall is 
15 inches, crops may still be grown with much certainty 
and homes may also be built, but not so easily as under 
the conditions previously stated. Where the rainfall 
is but 10 inches, fair crops may usually be grown, but 
home building in the true sense of the term is difficult 
in the absence of irrigating waters. But the conclusion 
should not be reacfied, that the amount of the water 
that falls is the chief factor in determining the amount 
of the water present. True, it is an important factor, 
but it is only one of a number. 

The character of the precipitation exerts a greatly 
important influence on the water supply. Should it 
come in the winter much of it may be lost to the soil 
because: (1) of the extent to which the soil may be 



THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 445 

frozen ; (2) of the too rapid melting of the snow, and 
(3) because of evaporation under some conditions. 
Should it come in the late spring and early summer 
months, the loss from evaporation under good manage- 
ment will be very considerable. Should it come in down- 
pours much of it may run away over the surface and 
into the gullies. Should much of it come in the form 
of light showers, it is much liable to escape from the 
surface soil through evaporation. Showers long and 
moderate are much to be preferred. 

The soil while yet unbroken is hard. For long 
centuries the soil has been trodden upon by the feet of 
animals. In many places the rains have frequently fallen 
upon it in dashes, which has tended to impact rather 
than to open up the surface. There has been an almost 
entire absence of the rains which sometimes fall gently 
for successive days in humid climates, the water enter- 
ing the earth rather than running over its surface. The 
outcome has been that a large proportion of the pre- 
cipitation that fell never entered the soil at all, and, as 
a rule, the amount that fell was relatively small. Of 
course, once in the streams it was forever lost to the 
soil. 

In much of the semi-arid country warm winds come 
occasionally, even in the winter. These winds are thought 
to be influenced by the waters of the Pacific. They 
are so warm that in some instances they are capable 
of melting a foot of snow or more in 24 hours. When 
deep snow is melted thus quickly, the principal portion 
thereof runs away over the impacted unbroken soil, 
even though the soil should not be frozen. When it is 
frozen, the condition is still further aggravated. In this 
way but a fractional amount of the winter's precipitation 
may enter the soil. 

In the semi-arid country evaporation is more rapid 
than it is ordinarily in humid areas. This is owing: (1) 



446 DRY LAND FARMING 

to the less degree of the humidity in the air; (2) to the 
character of the winds at certain seasons of the year, 
and (3) to the greater tendency in many soils to form 
cracks than is usual in soils in humid areas. It is rea- 
sonable to suppose that dry air moving over a soil will 
evaporate water on the earth and for some distance 
beneath it more quickly than air that is already sur- 
charged with moisture. It is also reasonable to con- 
clude that the more rapidly the currents move along, 
the larger will be the amount of moisture removeti. 
Winds are strong relatively in the spring months in 
the semi-arid country, the time when in many areas 
moisture is present in most abundance. This means that 
unless the escape of this moisture is prevented in some 
way much of it will be lost to the soil. The contrac- 
tion of the soil when drying forms cracks. The more 
numerous and larger and deeper the cracks the greater 
the amount of the moisture that will l)e lost. 

For the reasons given above, the shortage of water 
in dry areas is intensified. It explains why ponds or 
basins are so few that hold water all the year. It makes 
it clear why living streams are so few save in proximity 
to the mountains. It gives the reason also why lakes 
are so generally absent and why springs are so rare. 
Under these conditions it could not be otherwise than 
that water from wells would be more difficult to obtain 
in abundant supply than in humid areas. 

The sources of water in detail. — The following are 
the principal channels or sources from which water is 
obtained in dry areas: (1) that caught from roofs and 
in draws ; {2) that obtained from springs and streams ; 
(3) that which comes from irrigating ditches ; (4) that 
which is obtained from wells, and (5) that which comes 
from artesian sources. 

The water obtained from roofs must always be 
limited in supply for the reason, first, that the precipita- 



THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 447 

tion is light, and, second, that the roof surface is rela- 
tively small. A building, say, 40 by 60 feet should 
catch approximately 14,080 gallons of water in one year 
from a rainfall of 15 inches, providing none of it is 
allowed to waste. This may, in some instances at 
least, furnish water to meet the needs of the household 
and of a small garden as well. 

The water. caught in draws and ravines may be of 
considerable volume. Its source is water that comes 
from winter rains, from the melting of winter snows, 
and from rains in summer when the water falls so 
rapidly as to run away, in part at least, over the surface. 
To hold this water may not always be easy, because of 
the length and height of the dam required, and in some 
instances because of seepage through the soil. Water 
from roofs is caught and held in cement lined cisterns. 
Cement may also be used in arresting flood waters, but 
when thus used the cost entailed may be very consid- 
erable. 

In all parts of the dry areas, water obtained from 
springs may be utilized to great advantage. The regret- 
ful fact is that springs, although so precious, are so 
scarce in dry areas. Notwithstanding, they may be used 
with much profit even though distant from the home. 

Instances are on record wherein a tiny, insignificant 
spring has been made to supply the home, although lo- 
cated several miles away, the water being carried 
through pipes. 

Water from streams is equally valuable when it is 
easily accessible, but in very many instances what may 
be termed living streams are very few and far between 
in dry areas. Unless sufficiently near to be fed by melt- 
ing snows on the mountains, these streams are much 
liable to become dry and remain so soon after the season 
of greatest precipitation until the arrival of the season 
of precipitation that follows. In a few instances, the 



448 DRY LAND FARMING 

lower depressions in the bed may carry water for stock 
through the year. 

Irrigating- ditches may be utilized in furnishing to 
dry land homes the necessary water when they are suffi- 
ciently near, which, however, is not the case in a great 
majority of instances. Dependence on such water alone 
is hazardous, unless the ditch is supplied with water all 
the year, which seldom happens. This objection may 
be so far met by leading a reserve of water into a reser- 
voir, or by pumping into the same at the proper season. 
When water from such reservoirs can be spared to soak 
the land, even after the crops are reaped, it may aid the 
crops materially that are grown there the following 
year. 

Water from wells comes from a very satisfactory 
source, providing (1) that it is sufficient in supply; (2) 
that it is not too costly to raise, and (3) that it has the 
right qualities when obtained. It is satisfactory because 
in the range country it is free from contamination such 
as may come from external sources. In some instances, 
however, the supply is inadequate, in others it has come 
from great depths, and in yet others it is so affected with 
undesirable substances as to be unfit for use. But in 
a great majority of instances subterranean waters are 
good. 

Water from artesian sources is usually of good 
quality, but the first cost of obtaining it is frequently 
more than the farmer is able to bear. Should a flowing 
well be obtained on a ranch in the semi-arid country, 
its worth to its possessor cannot easily be overestimat- 
ed. It is a continual source of blessing. Should it entail 
the cost of pumping it would still be a blessing. But 
the farmer should be slow to begin drilling for artesian 
water without first having a good assurance from some 
reliable source that his search will not be in vain. 



THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 449 

How water that falls may be saved. — The water that 
falls in dry areas may be saved: (1) by constructing 
cement lined cisterns ; (2) by erecting dams of proper 
construction; (3) by piping from more or less distant 
springs. The reference here, of course, is to the sav- 
ing of water that is needed for drinking, for economic 
uses in the household and for live stock. The saving 
of the water of precipitation for the use of the crops is 
an entirely different proposition. To discuss that ques- 
tion properly is to discuss the whole question of the 
management of the soil when farming dry areas. 

Water collected from the roofs of buildings can 
only be preserved in cistern^''Or in wells. In these the 
water collected -cannot usually be held in the absence 
of a cement lining. When water may be stored 
thus, the loss through evaporation is almost entirely 
prevented. It may also be protected from contaminating 
influences. The cost of such storage need not be very 
large. 

The dams that are to aid in the storage of waters 
will be costly in proportion to their size, to the avail- 
ibility of the materials for their construction and to the 
nature of the materials used. In size they run all the 
way from a few feet in height and thrown across a 
narrow neck of a ravine, to the dimensions of a dam that 
may tax the power of a large corporation to build it. 
It is only the small dam and the small reservoir that 
the average farmer should try to build. Even when 
this is undertaken, the plan is good which seeks advice 
from those skilled in such work. The materials suitable 
for construction may be at hand. In other instances they 
have to be brought some distance. Usually, however, the 
materials at hand will suffice, providing the aid of cement 
is called in when necessary. Of course, such dams will 
be costly of construction in proportion to the extent to 
which cement is called for. In some instances, however, 



450 DRY LAND FARMING 

impervious clay furnishes a cheaper material. By a 
process sometimes spoken of as "puddling" it is made 
to prevent the seepage of water very effectively that 
would otherwise take place through materials such as 
are often used in the construction of dams. 

When making such reservoirs the fact should not 
be lost sight of that under many conditions fully 50 per 
cent, will be lost by evaporation. The proportional loss 
from this source will not be commensurate with the 
capacity of the reservoir. The more shallow the reser- 
voir in proportion to its capacity, the greater will be 
the loss from evaporation, because of the relatively larger 
amount of the water surface that is thus exposed. 

Water may be conveyed from distant springs in 
many instances at a cost for the piping that is within 
the means of the farmer. But when so conveyed it 
ought to be gathered into a reservoir. This will prove 
a safeguard against any interruption in the conveyance 
of the same, as may temporarily occur. 

How water may be raised. — In dry areas water may 
be raised: (1) by wind power; (2) by gasoline power; 
(3) by steam power, and (4) by electrical power. Which 
of these should be employed will depend largely on the 
cost entailed and on the amount of the water to be 
raised. 

Where it is necessary to raise only small quantities 
of water wind power will suffice. Such power will 
answer as a rule to supply the needs of the household, 
whether the source of the supply is a well, a reservoir 
or an irrigating ditch. It will also suffice to raise enough 
water for live stock in many instances where this may 
be necessary. It may also be made to raise water for a 
few acres of garden and orchard land when this may be 
desired. The capacity of the mill called for will be 
largely dependent, first, on the amount of water to be 
raised, and, second, on the average velocity of air cur- 



THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 451 

rents in the locality. The relative amount of the work 
done by a windmill in the plains country will be large, 
because of the absence of obstructions to the wind cur- 
rents in their course. 

That the irrigation of small areas from water 
pumped up by windmills is perfectly feasible has been 
shown in the experience of farmers in nearly all the 
states where semi-arid conditions prevail. The cost of 
the operation will vary greatly with the conditions, but 
for the kind of irrigation referred to, the cost should 
seldom exceed a few dollars per acre per year for the 
raising of the water. Such water must, of course, be 
stored in a reservoir when it is raised. In the not 
distant future, windmills that raise water to irrigate 
from a very few acres downward in proximity to the 
home, will be very common. It has been estimated that 
one good windmill with a wind velocity of, say, 10 
miles an hour, will raise enough water to meet the 
needs of the ordinary dry farm and garden, where the 
water is not to be lifted many feet. 

When water is to be raised from depths far down, 
it may be necessary to use other than wind power. For 
the comparatively limited uses referred to above, it will 
probably be found that gasoline power will raise water 
from considerable depths as cheaply, or even more so, 
than power from any other source. But it is at least 
questionable if it would be wise to go to the expense 
of raising water thus to be used on the ordinary dry 
land farm in the irrigation of the ordinary farm crops. 
It may pay well, however, to raise water thus to aid 
in growing fruit and truck crops where the markets 
for the same are good and not too distant. 

Steam power is frequently used for raising water 
to be used in growing various kinds of farm crops, but 
the expense of such an operation on the dry farm would 
be prohibitive. Where this method of raising water is 



452 DRY LAND FARMING 

used it is usually as a part of some irrigation project. 
Where the supply of subterranean water is plentiful and 
the lift is not too great, water may be thus raised for 
growing certain crops. Large areas are now being de- 
voted to rice grown thus in Texas and Louisiana. In 
the United States there are not fewer than 1,000,000 
acres of crops of various kinds grown from water that is 
pumped. In some countries, as, for instance, in India, 
several million acres are thus supplied with water every 
year. Sometime large areas of the semi-arid, and more 
especially the arid, country may be supplied with water 
thus, but, if so, that time is in the far-off future. 

Electrical power will seldom be used on the dry 
farm for raising water, but in extensive systems of irri- 
gation a very important place may be assigned to it. 
Especially will such power be used in irrigated regions 
and not too distant from the sources where such power 
may be generated. This source of power may come to 
be much used for lifting water from irrigating ditches 
to higher channels. 

Reserve water and home building. — Where homes 
are to be built in the semi-arid regions, a supply of 
what may be termed reserve water is indispensable. By 
reserve water is meant water stored artificially or in 
wells where it is sufficiently accessible. In all instances 
such water is essential to the needs of the home itself. 
It is also more or less essential: (1) in the garden; (2) 
in the orchard ; (3) in the shelter belt, and (4) in the 
keeping of live stock, especially such live stock as may 
be essential in providing for the needs of the family. 
When water cannot be secured for all these uses in 
the semi-arid region, home building is confessedly very 
difficult, if not impossible, howsoever feasible the culti- 
vation of the soil and the growing of certain crops 
may be. 



THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 



453 



Under conditions that are very dry, it may not be 
possible to catch and retain enough water from roofs 
to supply even the needs of the household. Especially 
is it so in the case of the new settler, as the shack which 
he builds is small. In choosing the site for the same, 
unless the presence of ground water is assured, the pos- 
sibility of collecting flood waters should be kept in mind. 




DRY LAND MONTANA FARM GARDEN. 
Courtesy Great Northern Railway Co. 



Of course, where the presence of ground water is as- 
sured, the problem is easy. 

For the needs of a garden, water must come from 
a tank or reservoir of considerable capacity, or from 
wells. The amount of the supplemental water for the 
garden of the farmer, when well managed, is not very 
large. Where the precipitation is not less than 15 inches 
per year, it may be dispensed with altogether. With a 



454 DRY LAND FARMING . . 

less amount of precipitation some supplemental water 
may be necessary in order to insure growth in the late 
crops that it may be desirable to grow in the garden. It 
may also be necessary to perfect growth in small fruits 
in a very dry time. Where a windmill is used to raise 
water for house and stock uses, it may also be made to 
raise it for some place of storage when it would other- 
wise be idle. Under very dry conditions, therefore, it 
may be quite feasible to establish and maintain a farm- 
er's garden. 

In the semi-arid country, the farmer should not at- 
tempt to grow a large orchard, unless the conditions for 
the same are peculiarly favorable. Fruit for the home 
should in nearly all instances be the limit of his aims. 
A small number of thrifty trees of each species will 
suffice. With 15 inches of rainfall in the year, or even 
a little less, additional water may not be wanted for 
the well-managed orchard. Should it be called for, one 
application will usually suffice, but not under all condi- 
tions. The most economical way of supplying water, 
from the standpoint of the water called for, is by laying 
perforated pipes below the surface of the ground and 
not distant from the tree rows. This method of apply- 
ing water is .most economical and effective after the ex- 
pense has been borne of supplying the pipes, an outlay 
that should not be heavy. But to accomplish this, a 
limited amount of reserve water is, of course, necessary 
from some source. 

The home on the prairie cannot be complete without 
the protection of a windbreak, and, if possible, of a grove 
also. It is quite possible to provide such protection 
without using any stored or reserve water where the 
rainfall is 15 inches on average western soil, but to get 
the trees started, and even to maintain growth, where 
the rainfall is much less, it may be necessary to use 
some stored water. In any event, supplemental water 



THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 455 

judiciously used will greatly tend to hasten growth in 
the shelter belt. 

Some live stock, as, for instance, a cow or two, is 
almost as indispensable to the dry farm as horses, and 
water for these is, of course, as essential as for the in- 
mates of the home. Live stock, and especially dairy 
cows, cannot be kept at a profit when they have to be 
driven long distances for water at any season of the 
year. A reserve supply from some source is imperative. 
It will be very evident from what has been said that it 
is absolutely indispensable that the dry land farmer shall 
secure a supply of reserve water for some, if not all, of 
the uses named. The sooner that he can accomplish 
this, the better will it be for the entire home and all 
that pertains to it. The contrast between a home thus 
equipped and one that is not is very great. 

Applying reserve water to the soil. — Reserve water, 
if used on the dry farm, must, as a rule, be applied with 
much carefulness and judgment to the growing of any 
kind of crop, because of the limited supply of the same. 
The irfigator whose ditches carry more water than 
he can use can afiford to be prodigal in the use of water. 
He may use it on all kinds of crops. It is very dififerent 
with the dry land farmer. The instances are few in 
which he should attempt to apply such water on ordi- 
nary field crops. The application will rather be confined 
to the orchard and the garden, more especially if the 
water is raised by pumping, which is usually much more 
expensive than gravity water. 

When reserve water is used on the dry farm, it 
should be so used, as a rule, to save crops, the growth of 
which has become w^ell advanced toward completion, and 
yet without the aid of applied water the crop would not 
reach full fruition. It is surprising how small an ap- 
plication of such water may suffice to save a crop. 
Those who grow crops by irrigation are slow to learn 



456 DRY LAND FARMING 

the lesson that the proportional increase in the produc- 
tion is by no means proportional to increase in the 
amount of the water applied. 

Experiments conducted in Utah gave results as fol- 
lows : The first 5 inches of water applied gave 40 
bushels of winter wheat per acre. The application of 
ten times the amount increased the yield only by one- 
half, that is, it gave but 60 bushels per acre. The ap- 
plication of 50 inches would also be more or less harmful 
to the land, because of the excess of the application. 
Similar results were also obtained from the growing 
of other crops. 

Remarkable results are frequently obtained from 
the use of very small quantities of water. Widtsoe cites 
an instance wherein a 12-foot geared windmill lifted 
water from a certain well in Arizona into a tank having 
a capacity of 5,000 gallons. The water was conveyed 
from this tank through iron pipes which were placed 
underneath the ground and within a foot or two of the 
trees. The pipes beneath the soil were perforated, which, 
of course, provided subterranean irrigation. The water 
sustained 87 useful trees, nearly all of them valuable 
fruit-bearing sorts, and 32 grape vines, with certain small 
bushes in addition. Many other instances may be given 
of remarkable results following the application of small 
quantities of water. 

The dry land farmer should not be hasty in the con- 
clusion that because he is a dry land farmer he does not 
need to seek any aid from stored water. Water is the 
most precious heritage of the farmer in the semi-arid 
country. Let him use it, therefore, to the greatest ex- 
tent practicable in furnishing him with the proper sur- 
roundings of a home. To defer doing so until many 
years have come and gone would certainly be a mistake. 

Dry farming and very light rainfall. — It is simply 
surprising what may be accomplished in some instances 



THE WATER SUPPLY IN DRY AREAS 457 

in growing crops under a very light precipitation. 
Illustrations will be given from results obtained in Sas- 
katchewan, Canada, in Utah, and in Montana, 

From 1891 to 1909 the rainfall at Indian Head, 
Sask., Can., averaged 12.88 inches. The winter precipi- 
tation is not included, but if this were added it would 
bring the annual precipitation up to approximately 15 
inches. The average yield of the spring wheat obtained 
from summer-fallowed land was 32.4 bushels. In 1904 
the rainfall was 3.9 inches. The snowfall reduced to 
water would probably add about one inch in the pre- 
cipitation. It would then be approximately 5 inches for 
the year. The wheat crop that year was 17 bushels 
from summer-fallowed land. The average given above 
was, of course, much higher than the average obtained 
by the farmers in the neighborhood. The yields cited 
were grown at the Government Experiment farm, 
which is under the management of Mr. Angus Mackay, 
one of the most intelligent and careful experimenters in 
all the west. But they show what can be done where 
the average rainfall is very limited. 

Widtsoe states that winter wheat crops grown on 
summer-fallow by the Hon. J. G. M. Barnes, of Kays- 
ville, Utah, averaged 25.5 bushels per acre. The farm, 
embracing 90 acres, is located 15 miles north of Salt 
Lake City. The period covered is 19 years and begins 
with 1887. The average annual precipitation was 14.82 
inches, the larger portion coming in the winter and quite 
early spring. 

The drought in Utah was most intense and pro- 
longed in 1910. In many parts of the state, more espe- 
cially to the southward, no rain fell from the close of 
winter until the harvest had been reaped. The harvest 
reports indicated that from 80 to 90 per cent, of a crop 
had been reaped. 



45S DRY LAND FARMING 

Twenty-five acres of grain were grown at Chester, 
Mont., in the summer of 1910. The grains comprised 
durum wheat, speltz, oats, spring rye, white hulless and 
other barley and Canadian field peas. 

They were grown on the Experiment farm main- 
tained by the Great Northern railroad. The land had 
been summer-fallowed the previous year. The light 
winter snowfall at Chester was carried away in Feb- 
ruary, and much of it went into the streams. The month 
of March was abnormally warm and it was rainless ; no 
rain fell in April nor until about May 10. As the land 
was not directly imder the control of the Great North- 
ern road earlier, no harrowing was done until about 
April first. By that time the moisture had so far left 
the soil that the grain did not germinate until rain fell 
in May, as stated. The total precipitation at Chester 
from September 1, 1909, to September 1, 1910, was less 
than 7 inches. The rainfall during the entire growing 
period was about 3^ inches. The intensity of the 
drought may be understood from the statement that, 
save in some of the lower depressions, the grass never 
became green from the opening of spring until the snow 
fell, about the middle of the following November. The 
yields of the various grains ran from 10 to 18 bushels 
per acre. On the Great Northern demonstration farm 
at Cut Bank, Mont., the conditions being very similar 
as to weather, 20 bushels of durum wheat were reaped 
l)er acre, and 30 bushels of Swedish Select oats. 



INDEX 



Page 
A 

Africa, Dry Farming in 32 

Alfalfa, GroAving. 310 

America, Dry Farming in 47 

Antiquity of Dry Farming. .... 24 
Arid and Semi-arid America, 

Divisions of 28 

Aridity affected by precipitation 14 

Artichokes, Growing 307 

Asia, Dry Farming in 32 

Autumn grain, Time to sow. . . . 179 

B 

Barley, Growing 250 

Beef cattle on Dry Farm 432 

Broadcasting, Disadvantages of 175 

Brome Griiss, Growing 346 

C 

Cereal crops 193 

Barley 197 

Flax 195 

Oats 198 

Peas 195 

Rye 196 

Speltz 198 

Wheat 194 

Climates classified 10 

Arid 10 

Humid 13 

Semi-arid 12 

Sub-humid .'. 13 

Clovers, Growing 322 

Conservation of moisture 449 

Corn, Growing 269 

Cowpeas, Growing 333 

Crops, Methods of growing 8 

Crops, Special. 5 

Cultivators besides the disc 149 

D 

Dairy cattle on the Dry Farm. . 431 

Disc and its use 145 

Drill sowing. Advantages from. . 173 

Dust mulch, Maintaining 165 

E 

Europe, Dry Farming in 31 

F 

Fertility 406-410 

Increase of 410 

Loss of 406 

Sources of 408 

Field Beans, Growing 296 

Field Roots, Growing 299 

Flax, Growing 244 

Fodder crops. 199 

Fruits suitable for Dry Farm. . . 372 

Fruits and Vegetables 208 

Future of Dry Farming 40 



Page 
H 

Harrows and their uses 154 

Hay crops 202 

Hay from grains 349 

Hay from millets 353 

History of Dry Farming. ...... 26 

Horses on the Dry Farm. ...... 430 

Humus 413 

Benefits from 417 

Increase of 420 

Sources of ■ 415 

Supply of 413 

I 

Ideas, Dominant, in Dry Fann- 
ing 17 

M 

Moisture in soils — 

Function of water 84 

Loss of, by evaporation 87 

by transpiration. ... 92 

Importance of 96 

Utilization of 99 

Water in semi-arid soils 80 

N 
Nurse crops and sowing 186 

O 

Outs, Growing 254 

Other places, Dry Fanning in. . 33 

Australia 34 

Canada 33 

Central America 34 

Mexico 34 

South America 34 

P 

Pasture crops from grain 359 

Pasture crops from grass 355 

Peas, Growing 262 

Flankers and their uses 160 

Plant growth 103 

Features peculiar to 103 

Functions of water in soil in 106 

Reducing loss of water in. . . 107 

Root development in 112 

Seasonal use of moisture in.. 110 

Superior quality of 114 

Volunteermg in grain 117 

Weeds 115 

Planting and caring for 376 

Fruits 379 

Trees 376 

Plowing 121 

-Depth of 128 

Frequency of 139 

Kind of implement for. 131 

Object sought in 121 



'J GO 



DRY LAND FARMING 



Page 

Plowing — Continued 

Power to use in 134 

Subsoil 137 

Time for 125 

Poultry on Dry Farm 437 

Potatoes, Growing 291 

Precipitation, Annual, In: 

Alberta and Saskatchewan.. 52 

Arizona 55 

California 55 

Colorado 54 

Idaho ■ 55 

Kansas 53 

Montana 55 

Nebraska 53 

Nevada 55 

New Mexico 54 

North Dakota 53 

Oklahoma 53 

Oregon 55 

South Dakota 53 

Texas 54 

Utah 55 

Washington 55 

Wyoming 54 

Pi-ecipitation, Seasons of 57 

Production as an index of fertility 76 

Grasses 77 

Greasewood. . 77 

Sage brush. 76 

Sparse vegetation 76 

Promoters of Dry Farming 35 

R 

Rollers and their uses 158 

Roots and tubers 205 

Rotation 383-401 

Benefits from 388 

Cultivated crops and grains 395 

Fallow and cultivated crops 397 

Fallow and grain 392 

Grass crops 399 

Reasons for 383 

Rye, winter and spring 236 

S 

Sainfoin, Growing 327 

Seed, Amoimt to .sow of 177 



Page 

Seed drills and their uses 163 

Sheep on the Dry Farm 434 

Soils, Meaning, extent, value of 61-76 

Alkali 73 

Clay Loam 67 

Gumbo 72 

Sandy Loam 68 

Silt 69 

Volcanic Ash 71 

Western 61 

Speltz, Growing 260 

Spring grain. Time to sow 181 

Sorghums, Growing 285 

Stocking the Dry Farm 428 

Subsoil and its use 64 

Summer-fallow 168 

Sweet clover. Growing 335 

Swine on the Dry Farm 436 

T 

Timothy, Growing 340 

Trees suitable for the Dry Farm 370 

Trees and windbreaks 210 

Tul^ers and roots 205 

U 

United States, Dry Farming in 28 
Colorado and Rio Grande 

basins 30 

Columbia basin 30 

Great Basin country 29 

Great Plains area 29 

Mountain states 30 

V 

Vegetables and fruits 208 

Vetches, Growing 330 

W 

Water 442-456 

Conservation of 449 

■ Methods of raising 450 

Scarcity of 442 

Sources of _ 446 

Western rye grass, Growing. . . . 343 

Wheat, Winter and Spring 214 

Windbreaks and trees 210 



